Alexander II and Reform
Impact of the Crimean War
• The war initially silenced opposition to the Nicholas I.
• But the impact of the war changed that.
• What did Russians see?
• Their army was humbled.
• Brining further discredit to the regime.
• Officials now openly questioned policy.
• Revolts increased among the peasants.
Alexander II’s Realization
• Alexander II kept the crisis in hand.
• Likewise he realized that reforms were needed.
• Or Russia would face civil war.
• Or worse.
• But he knew that reforms had to come.
• However, he did not have a plan in hand.
Ukaz of March 31, 1856
• Alexander announced the treaty.
• He indicated it could open a new period of hope and tranquility.
• He also had proposals before him involving serfdom, education, and the legal system.
Questions, Questions, and More Questions
• The serfs would not accept words any more.
• The nobles wanted to know what he was about to do?
• Alexander told them: better to abolish serfdom from above than waite till they begin to liberate themselves.
Who Was Alexander II?
• Was he Tsar-Liberator?
• Was he the Abraham Lincoln of Russia?
• Was he properly trained for the tasks he faced?
• But when he took the throne he was 36 and the best educated of the lot.
• He was also more humane than his father.
The First Moves
• The Ukaz of March 31, 1856, opened the debate.
• But it took five years before action took place.
• Much of the delay belonged to Alexander.
The Status of the Nobility
• The nobility saw the need for reform.
• But they delayed like the Tsar.
• But they wanted the best for themselves.
• The questions of the nobility delayed the process.
• To reach his objective, he had to turn to his liberal ministers.
Committees of Nobles
• These committees of nobles started the process in Jan. 1857.
• Findings were forwarded to St. Petersburg.
• There they were reviewed by the Private Committee of the Emperor.
• Their was a delay because conservatives dragged their feet.
• In 1858, the Committee was renamed the Main Committee.
• Alexander pleaded to move quickly.
Drafting the Legislation
• The actual drafting began in 1859.
• The main spokesmen was Nicholas Miliutin, the Deputy Minister of the Interior.
• A draft proposal was ready by Oct. 1860.
• The Conservatives attempted more recommendations.
• The final proposal was then sent to the Emperor to be discussed in the State Council.
• The deliberations finally ended on Feb. 27, 1861.
• Which had to be done by the time of Spring planting.
Vote of the State Council
• Votes were made point by point.
• Alexander II ordered that the Act would stand as the draft.
• The final form consisted of the 17 articles and special sections.
• The full act was known as “The Act on the Emancipation of the Peasants from Sefdom.
• Signed on March 3, 1861.
• The State Peasants would benefit in 1866.
Divisions of Serfs
• 1.4 Million household sefs.
• 21 million worked the land.
• 24.7 were state peasants.
• 22.4 Million serfs were given their personal liberty.
• This effectively brought serfdom to an end.
More an Involved Process
• The peasants retain the land they worked.
• But they could not refuse.
• The goal was to avoid a class of landless peasants.
• The nobility was not to be paid for the loss of their serfs, but they would paid for the loss of their land.
• The payment would be in either money or labor.
• The peasants would get the “beggar’s quarter” and wave their claims to the rest.
Paying Their Debt
• The serfs preferred to make a cash payment.
• The government provided low interest loans to those who could not pay.
• The “redemption payments” would cover 49 years.
• By 1880, settlements were made on 85% of the land.
• Most of their land was over valued.
The Devil was in the Details
• The land did not go to the individual.
• Instead it went to the commune.
• One could leave the commune and sell their land.
• While the Emancipation Manifesto ended the peasant/landlord relationship.
• But it did not end the relationship between the peasant and the commune.
• The commune was to collect the redemption dues, what was to be grown, and when the land tilled.
The Administrative Organ of Emancipation
• Village commune was the organ.
• The district/canton government supplement the commune.
• The local government included assessor, judge, clerk, and elder.
• Elected by delegates from the villages.
• The court handled original jurisdiction and handled appeals from the assembly.
• The goal was to become the self-government for the peasants.
Class Status of the Peasants
• Socially they were at the bottom.
• There clothes set them apart.
• Which made them second class.
• If not lower.
• Restricted from entering public buildings.
• And still liable for corporal punishment.
Long-Term Consequences
• Established a free peasantry but could not support themselves.
• Accelerated the collapse of the nobility.
• But exposed the nobility as incompetent agronomists.
• Some tried to become gentlemen farmers.
• Rural areas continued to decline.
General Thoughts
• Emancipation was just the first step.
• The improved status of the serfs required strengthening of local government.
• Nicholas Miluitin adopted many of Speransky’s proposals.
• Miluitin had too many enemies and was replaced byh Peter Valuiev.
• Valuiev championed the dominance of the nobility.
The Zemstvo Law
• Proposed by Valuiev.
• Established elected assemblies on the district level.
• Composed three classes of voters – landowners, wealthy townspeople, and peasants.
• Each class voted separately.
• The nobility had the edge in numbers.
• In the first elections – 43% nobles, 38% peasants, and 18% from other classes.
• Zemstvos had no jurisdiction over cities.
Powers of the Zemstvos
• Authority to impose limited taxes on real estate and business.
• Work on roads.
• Local construction.
• Local welfare.
• Had no police powers.
• Liberals thought this would work and lead to other reforms.
General Overview
• Most of the earlier reforms only existed on paper.
• Earlier on 10% of eligible voters ever voted.
• A draft reform was ready by 1866.
• But a conservative reaction forced Alexander II to retract this measure.
• The Statute of 1870 allowed for suffrage for males who paid taxes.
• A three-class system was organized according to wealth.
• The emperor appointed the mayors in Moscow and St. Petersburg.
The Duties of Municipal Governments
• Education.
• Social Welfare.
• Public Safety.
• Limited taxing powers.
• But not chief political functions.
Legal Reforms
• Alexander realized the old system had to be reformed.
• So in 1862, work was started on a new legal code.
• By 1864, the new legal system was introduced on the French system.
• Which provided for:
• Open trials.
• Jury system
• Independent judiciary.
• Justice-of-the-peace system to handle petty offenses.
Some Weaknesses in the Legal System
• Did not apply to the peasantry.
• Juries could not handle cases involving treason.
• Censorship was an other issue.
• Partially lifted, but not completely.
• All books of over ten pages were subject to preliminary censorship.
• Some books got through…like Marx’s Das Kapital.
Educational Reforms
• Harsh measures of Nicholas I were repealed.
• Schools were now open to children of all classes.
• Religion was no longer a bar to entrance.
• Autonomy was now restored.
• Faculties had the authority to control their administrations.
• Admissions were liberalized.
• Women were allowed to become teachers.
Army Reforms
• The Crimean war exposed Russia to the necessity of reform of the Army.
• This was the work of D.A. Miliutin.
• He was war minister from 1861-1881.
• Earlier the bulk of the army came from urban poor or peasants.
• Who served for 25 years.
• And discipline was harsh.
Miluitin’s Objectives
• Raise the dignity of service.
• Improve the quality of the officer corps.
• Eliminate corporal punishment.
• Reduce the length of service to sixteen years.
Miluitin’s Reforms
• Established military schools to train officers.
• Including specialized schools for the infantry, artillery, and cavalry.
• Still the nobility monopolized the officer billets.
• The major change came in 1874 with universal military service.
• All males eligible for military service at 20.
• Some were excused or exempted.
• Following active service, a reserve commitment was required.