The Study Aims to Identify Communication Processes Using Sausure's Oral Communication
ABSTRACT
The study aims to identify communication processes using Sausure's oral communication and Jakobson’s verbal communication, and to draw an obvious picture in view of their elements especially Jakobsons’: conative, emotive, referential functions, contact and code. Moreover, this study aims to investigate the differences in the use of both verbal and oral communications in terms of the listener and speaker (addresser and addressee) focusing on their roles. Besides, it was found that Saussure has two elements of communication process as well as there is no sender and receiver; messages are changing between sender and receiver. In contrast, Jakobson's model has 6 elements. Consequently, Roman Jakobson's model of the communication can be adapted to written communication between the reader and the author, too. It was also found that verbal communication model allows us to convey information through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information by way of speech, signals, writing, or forms of behavior. Whereas, oral communication as Reddy stated in his book is "a formula that reduces meaning to explicit 'content' that resides within the text and is then delivered like a package"
KEYWORDS: Oral communication, Verbal communication, Elements, Addresser, Addressee, Message, Meaning, Listener, Speaker.
1. Introduction
There are many models of communication process like, linear, non-linear, mathematical, and interactive and so on. I will pay attention models that are accepted as the main line of communication process and elements started from Saussure and then Jakcobson.
Therefore, in this research I am going to compare and explain different structures of communication process and elements of Saussure's Oral Communication and Jakobson’s Verbal Communication. Moreover, mentioning the characteristics as well as the shortcomings of both, and then justifying which one is going to be possible and is likely to work or be more practical by giving examples too.
I will begin my research by highlighting some famous definitions of communication, in general, according to well-known linguists, theorists and others. So, what is a communication? “communication [Lat. communicatio ‘the action of imparting‘] In its broadest sense, this term refers to every kind of mutual transmission of information using signs or symbols between living beings (humans, animals), between people and data-processing machines.” (Bussmann 1996:83)
Communication is the process that occurs when ideas, information and feelings are conveyed between individuals or groups of individuals for deliberate purposes. (Buguley 1994)
Communication is a process of transmitting and receiving verbal or non-verbal messages that produces a response (Murphy and Hildebrandt 1991)
"In its narrower, linguistic sense, communication is the understanding which occurs between humans through linguistic and non-linguistic means like gestures, mimicry and voice (non-verbal communication). The basic components of communication are shown in communication models” (Bussmann 1996:83)
Communication process is more than just one person speaking and another one listening. To make our communication successful it needs to have structure and skillful use of its different elements which I am going to explain them in this research in details.
To begin with, types of communication are verbal and non-verbal, oral and written, formal and informal, and intentional and unintentional communication.
The common model of any communication are; a message, and here it is what need to be communicated. A messenger is the person who has something to communicate, whereas a receiver is the person who will receive the message. Then we have an encoding which is verbal and non-verbal convention of communication. Next, decoding which is reading by the receiver of the encoding done by the messenger. Lastly, channel is the means of communication
Next, before starting with the discussion section I would like to demonstrate the difference between "oral" and "verbal", in general, to draw an obvious picture before getting in the topic which is going to be in details.
There is a tendency to use the two words interchangeably, but careful users of the language make a distinction between the two. The word "oral" implies that what has been communicated is through word of mouth. Talking is involved. Students doing an M. Phil or a Ph. D. have an oral examination once they submit their dissertation. An individual may be willing to confess to a crime orally; he/she may refuse to give a written confession. "Verbal" refers to the actual words used to communicate with another individual. But unlike "oral", verbal can also include the written form of communication. (P. Seetha, Chennai)
2.1. Saussure’s Oral Communication
Communication is the exchange of ideas, information, etc. between two or more persons. In an act of communication there is usually at least a speaker or sender, a message which is transmitted, and a person or persons for whom this message is intended (the receiver).
I am going to start and elaborate this discussion with Saussure’s model. To begin with, his circuit starts in A’s mind, where there are concepts (facts of consciousness) related to linguistic representations or the acoustic images expressing them. The concept triggers the acoustic image corresponding to it, a phenomenon which is psychic in nature. Then the brain transmits an impulse to the vocal organs relative to the image, which is a physiological process. Transmission from the mouth of A (vocalization) to the ear of B (hearing) is a physical process based on sound waves. In B’s perception the circuit operates in inverse order: from the ear to the mind, and in the mind coupling the acoustic image with the (initial) concept. If B speaks in reply, this new process, from his mind to A’s mind, will follow exactly the same course in reverse.
In other words, and to be more clear and obvious, Saussure introduces the model in the following manner:
- “In order to identify what role linguistic structure plays within the totality of language, we must consider the individual act of speech and trace what takes place in the speech circuit. This act requires at least two individuals: without this minimum the circuit would not be complete. Suppose, then, we have two people, A and B, talking to each other. The starting point of the circuit is in the brain of one individual, for instance A, where facts of consciousness which we shall call concepts are associated with representations of linguistic signs or sound patterns by means of which they may be expressed. Let us suppose that a given concept triggers in the brain a corresponding sound pattern. This is an entirely psychological phenomenon, followed in turn by a physiological process: the brain transmits to the organs of phonation an impulse corresponding to the pattern. Then sound waves are sent from A’s mouth to B’s ear: a purely physical process. Next, the circuit continues in B in the opposite order: from ear to brain, the physiological transmission of the sound pattern; in the brain, the psychological association of this pattern with the corresponding concept. If B speaks in turn, this new act will pursue—from his brain to A’s—exactly the same course as the first, passing through the same successive phases, which we may represent as follows’’ (Saussure 1983:[27–28])
Here I do agree with Chandler that Saussure’s model proves that the speaker is active when communicating while the listener is passive. Moreover, that Saussure’s process in his model is just like the mirror when participants communicate one to another:
- ‘’one can see Saussure’s model of oral communication. This linear transmission model exemplifies how the speaker’s role is ‘active’ and the listener’s role is ‘passive’ (Chandler, p.179). His model was based on the notion that comprehension on the part of the listener mirrors the speaker’s initial process of expressing a thought’’ (Chandler, p.180).
Here also I do agree with Reddy in his argument as 'transmission' model is the base of any communication:
- ‘’Everyday references to communication are based on a 'transmission' model in which a sender transmits a message to a receiver - a formula which reduces meaning to 'content' which is delivered like a parcel’’ (Reddy 1979).
Here is another elaboration on Saussure’s model where I quoted Dr. Azadeh Asgri’s explanation on what came above from his book (linguistics for beginners):
- ''On the other hand, communication is a linear that two persons, A and B, in a way that a message a message is conveyed from one to the other: A B. On the other hand, the participants in the communication process are both simultaneously active. Person B doesn't only listen, she or he may answer or at least show some reaction. On the basis of this understanding, Saussure devised a circular communication model, i.e. the model of the speech circuit. It shows the mechanisms of a dialogue: Acoustic signals are sent from a speaker A to a receiver B, who then, in turn, becomes the sender, sending information to A, who becomes the receiver. Saussure outlined two processes within this framework. The first one is phonation. Here the sender formulates mental sings in the mind and then gives acoustic shape to them. The second one, audition, is the opposite process of the receiver transforming the acoustic messages into mental signs''. (Dr. Azadeh Asgri, 48)
Saussure’s diagrams and descriptions are of course simple generalizations, intended to capture those elements which he considered essential. Concerning their simplicity, Saussure comments: (Perry L. Blackburn)
- “This analysis makes no claim to be complete. One could go on to distinguish the auditory sensation itself, the identification of that sensation with the latent sound pattern, the patterns of muscular movement associated with phonation, and so on. We have included only those elements considered essential; but our schematisation enables us straight away to separate the parts which are physical (sound waves) form those which are physiological (phonation and hearing) and those which are psychological (the sound patterns of words and the concepts). It is particularly important to note that the sound patterns of the words are not to be confused with actual sounds. The word patterns are psychological, just as the concepts associated with them are”. (Saussure 1983:[27–29])
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According to what mentioned above, I found that Saussure has 2 elements of communication process. Therefore, the situation here is that Saussure divided communication into two elements Audition and Phonation. The main different aspect of his model is circular action. There is no sender and receiver; messages are changing between sender and receiver. Next, Saussure is using phonation which is acoustic shape of information and this point is originally of his model. Moreover, according to him when receiver receives the message he is receiving acoustic shape of message and transfers in it mental signs and gives feedback to sender. Therefore, according to my readings, I also found that Saussure's model can be called dialogical model of communication process. In addition, the aim of Saussure in formulating this model was to identify the language system. The circuit of speech is for Saussure an individual act, presupposing at least two individuals.
To be more relevant to the topic I concluded some characteristics of oral communication from different sources since they are convincible, too.
I found that oral communication is flexibile and it is the main feature of it, it is more flexible than any other means of communication. Oral communication can be changed easily depending on the situation. In addition, the speaker can get immediate feedback in the case of oral communication. By guessing the mood and response of the receiver he can make changes accordingly. Moreover, there is an opportunity for correction. In case of written or other communication messages cannot be corrected immediately- but in case of oral communication it can be corrected within few seconds.
2.2. Jacobson’s Verbal Communication
The next model of communication is going to be about Jakobson’s verbal communication. Next, here the meaning of verbal communication is completely different from the previous model (Saussure’s model), and also verbal communication is when messages or information is exchanged or communicated through words is called verbal communication. Moreover, verbal communication takes place through face-to-face conversations, group discussions, interview, radio, television, calls, letters, reports, notes, email etc. Therefore, it is wider than the previous model. Some definitions of verbal communications are as follows:
According to Bovee and others: “Verbal communication is the expression of information through language which is composed of words and grammar.” And according to Penrose and others, “Verbal communication consists of sharing thoughts thought the meaning of words.”
So, verbal communication is the process of exchanged of information or message between two or more persons through written or oral words.
“Every communication has a content and a relationship aspect such that the latter classifies the former and is therefore a metacommunication”.(Watzlawick and others 1967:54) - “the exchangeand negotiation of information between at least two individuals through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, oral and written, and production and comprehension processes” (Halliday 1973).
Roman Jakobson came with another model of verbal communication, and he called it an interpersonal verbal communication model, and this one is wider and more practical than the basic transmission model of communication above. In his model, Jakobson came with the six elements in any act of verbal communication or what he called “constitutive factors”.
- “Roman Jakobson proposed a model of interpersonal verbal communication which moved beyond the basic transmission model of communication and highlighted the importance of the codes and social contexts involved’’ (Jakobson 1960). ‘’He noted elsewhere that 'the efficiency of a speech event demands the use of a common code by its participants’’ (Jakobson & Halle 1956, 72).
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- “The addresser sends a message to the addressee. To be operative the message requires a context referred to (‘referent’ in another, somewhat ambivalent, nomenclature), seizable by the addressee, and either verbal or capable of being verbalized, a code fully, or at least partially, common to the addresser and addressee (or in other words, to the encoder and decoder of the message); and finally, a contact, a physical channel and psychological connection between the addresser and the addressee, enabling both of them to stay in communication”. (Jakobson 1960, 353)
- ‘’Jakobson established the principle that one cannot make sense of signs without relating them to relevant codes’’ (Chandler, p.181).
In other words, the addresser (speaker, author) sends a message (the verbal act, the signifier) to the addressee (the hearer or reader). To be operative, the message requires a context (a referent, the signified), seizable by the addresses, and either verbal or capable of being verbalized; a code (shared mode of discourse, shared language) fully, or at least partially, common to the addresser and the addressee (in other words, to the encoder and decoder of the message); and, finally, a contact, a physical channel and psychological connection between the addresser and the addressee, enabling both of them to enter and stay in communication. Jakobson claims that each of these six factors determines a different function of language.
These elements are going to be explained in details through examples. To begin with, the Referential function is oriented toward the Context, and here it means what is being spoken of, what is being referred to. For instance, ( It's raining.). So the function is imparting information. Secondly, the Emotive (expressive) function is oriented toward the Addresser. Here it refers or functions as an expressing feelings or attitudes. For example, (It's bloody pissing down again!). Here we have emphasis. Next, the Conative (action-inducing, such as a command) function is oriented toward the Addressee. Here it influences behavior or it refers to those aspects of language which aim to create a certain response in the addressee. Like, (Wait here till it stops raining!). Another element is the Metalingual (language speaking about language) function is oriented toward the Code. Here people use language to check out with each other if they are in the same path or line, and here they use the same codes in the same contexts. For instance, (This is the weather forecast). The last element is the Poetic function is oriented toward the Message for its own sake. Here we focus on the message as well as the repetitions of sound values, stresses, accents. For example, (It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven).
- ‘’Jakobson proposes that each of these six factors (addresser, message, context, contact, code, and addressee) determines a different linguistic function. His model demonstrates that messages and meanings cannot be isolated from contextual factors’’.
To be more relevant to the topic I concluded some characteristics of verbal communication as I did with oral communication above from different sources since they are convincible, too. I found that verbal communication is when people speak to one another. Some characteristics of verbal communication are that it requires the use of words that are understood by both the speaker and the listener, and it typically employs a cultural etiquette common to the people involved. Moreover, one important point that I concluded during this research that if verbal communication steps outside of these boundaries is not always clearly understood by the listener.
Finally, as I stated above in the first model, I do agree with (Reddy) that our communication depends on 'transmission' model in which a sender sends a message to a receiver - "a formula that reduces meaning to explicit 'content' that resides within the text and is then delivered like a package" (Reddy 1979). In contrast, Jakobson's model allows us to convey information through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information by way of speech, signals, writing, or forms of behavior. Therefore, I found Jakobson's model interesting and more practical.
3. Results
I concluded that Saussure has 2 elements of communication process as well as there is no sender and receiver; messages are changing between sender and receiver. In contrast, Jakobson's model has 6 elements. Consequently, Roman Jakobson's model of the communication can be adapted to written communication between the reader and the author, too.
I found that oral communication is flexible and can be changed easily depending on the situation. In addition, the speaker can get immediate feedback in the case of oral communication. Moreover, there is an opportunity for correction. In case of written or other communication messages cannot be corrected immediately- but in case of oral communication it can be corrected within few seconds.