Chapter 12

The Presidency: Leading the Nation

Learning Objectives

Having read the chapter, the students should be able to do each of the following:

  1. Trace the historical evolution of presidential powers and explain why a conception of an activist president replaced earlier theories of presidential power.
  2. Review the strategies employed by candidates in the presidential nomination process; note the factors that influence the process; and contrast the nomination strategies with the strategies and influences characterizing the general election.
  3. List the major organizations that make up the Executive Office of the President and explain each organization’s area of policy expertise and its powers under the modern presidency.
  4. Assess the effects of staffing on the president’s control of executive authority.
  5. Discuss and explain the factors that make for a successful presidency.
  6. Summarize the two presidencies thesis. Explain the strengths and weaknesses of the thesis, citing historical examples where appropriate.
  7. List the major stipulations of the War Powers Act and discuss the extent to which the legislation has accomplished its purpose.
  8. Explain how the nature of national circumstances can affect presidential power both positively and negatively.
  9. Analyze the relationship between the executive and Congress and assess the ability of either institution to set policy independently of the other.
  10. Describe why the president generally has a freer hand in foreign policy and how presidential power is enhanced on foreign issues.
  11. Detail the methods by which presidents court public support, and how high or low levels of public support can affect presidential power.

Chapter Outline

I.Foundations of the Modern Presidency

A.The Changing Conception of the Presidency

B.The Need for a Strong Presidency

II.Choosing the President

A.The Nominating Campaign: Primaries and Caucuses

B.The National Party Conventions

C.The General Election Campaign

1.Election Strategy

2.Media and Money

3.The Winners

III.Staffing the Presidency

A.The Vice President

B.The Executive Office of the President (EOP)

C.Cabinet and Agency Appointees

D.The Problem of Control

IV.Factors in Presidential Leadership

A.The Force of Circumstance

B.The Stage of the President’s Term

C.The Nature of the Issue: Foreign or Domestic

D.Relations with Congress

1.Seeking Cooperation from Congress

2.Benefiting from Partisan Support in Congress

3.Colliding with Congress

E.Public Support

1.Events and Issues

2.The Televised Presidency

V.The Illusion of Presidential Government

Focus and Main Points

This chapter examines the roots of presidential power, the presidential selection process, the staffing of the presidency, and the factors associated with the success and failure of presidential leadership. The main ideas of this chapter are these:

  • Over time, the presidency has become a more powerful office. This development owes largely to the legacy of strong presidents and to domestic and international developments that have increased the need for executive leadership.
  • The modern presidential campaign is a marathon affair in which self-selected candidates seek a strong start in the nominating contests and a well-run media campaign in the general election.
  • The president could not control the executive branch without a large number of presidential appointees—advisors, experts, and skilled managers—but the sheer number of these appointees is itself a challenge to presidential control.
  • The president’s election by national vote and position as sole chief executive make the presidency the focal point of national politics. Nevertheless, whether presidents are able to accomplish their goals depends on their personal capacity for leadership, national and international conditions, the stage of their presidency, the partisan composition of Congress, and whether the issue is foreign or domestic.

Chapter Summary

The presidency has become a much stronger office than the framers envisioned. The Constitution grants the president substantial military, diplomatic, legislative, and executive powers, and in each case the president’s authority has increased measurably over the nation’s history. Underlying this change is the president’s position as the one leader chosen by the whole nation and as the sole head of the executive branch. These features of the office have enabled presidents to claim broad authority in response to the increased demands placed on the federal government by changing global and national conditions.

During the course of American history, the presidential selection process has been altered in ways intended to make it more responsive to the preferences of ordinary people. Today, the electorate has a vote not only in the general election but also in the selection of party nominees. To gain nomination, a presidential hopeful must win the support of the electorate in state primaries and open caucuses. Once nominated, the candidates are eligible to receive federal funds for their general election campaigns, which today are based on Internet and televised appeals.

Although the campaign tends to personalize the presidency, the responsibilities of the modern presidency far exceed any president’s personal capacities. To meet their obligations, presidents have surrounded themselves with large staffs of advisors, policy experts, and managers. These staff members enable the president to extend control over the executive branch while at the same time providing the information necessary for policymaking. All recent presidents have discovered, however, that their control of staff resources is incomplete and that some things that others do on their behalf can work against what they are trying to accomplish.

As sole chief executive and the nation’s top elected leader, presidents can always expect that their policy and leadership efforts will receive attention. However, other institutions, particularly Congress, have the authority to make presidential leadership effective. No president has come close to winning approval of all the programs he has placed before Congress, and presidents’ records of success have varied considerably. The factors in a president’s success include whether national conditions that require strong leadership from the White House are present and whether the president’s party has a majority in Congress.

Presidential success stems from the backing of the American people. Recent presidents have made extensive use of the media to build public support for their programs, yet they have had difficulty maintaining that support throughout their terms of office. A major reason is that the public expects far more from its presidents than they can deliver.

Major Concepts

Whig theory

A theory that prevailed in the nineteenth century and held that the presidency was a limited or restrained office whose occupant was confined to expressly granted constitutional authority.

stewardship theory

A theory that argues for a strong, assertive presidential role, with presidential authority limited only at points specifically prohibited by law.

open party caucuses

Meetings at which a party’s candidates for nomination are voted on and that are open to all the party’s rank-and-file voters who want to attend.

invisible primary

The critical period before the first presidential primaries and caucuses when the candidates compete for the public support, media attention, and financial contributions that can spell the difference between winning and losing once the voting begins.

momentum (in campaigns)

A strong showing by a candidate in early presidential nominating contests, which leads to a buildup of public support for the candidate.

unit rule

The rule that grants all of a state’s electoral votes to the candidate who receives the most popular votes in the state.

White House Office (WHO)

A subunit of the Executive Office of the President (EOP), the White House Office is the core of the presidential staff system in that it includes the president’s closest and most trusted personal advisors.

cabinet

A group consisting of the heads of the executive (cabinet) departments, who are appointed by the president, subject to confirmation by the Senate. The cabinet was once the main advisory body to the president, but it no longer plays this role.

honeymoon period

The president’s first months in office, a time when Congress, the press, and the public are more inclined than usual to support presidential initiatives.

presidential approval ratings

A measure of the degree to which the public approves or disapproves of the president’s performance in office.

Lecture Outline

This lecture outline closely follows the text in its organization. The instructor can use this outline as a lecture aid.

I. Foundations of the Modern Presidency

The framers did not anticipate the development of presidential selection via popular election. Yet with the expansion of presidential power, particularly in the twentieth century, presidential elections have become tiresome ordeals because the prize is highly coveted, as presidents can wield a great deal of power and influence in American politics. Thus, presidential elections have become marathons, a phenomenon that Barack Obama and John McCain both experienced in 2008.

  • The framers wanted an independent president, but one with restricted powers.
  • Article II has relatively vague statements about presidential powers.
  • The framers did not anticipate expansion of presidential power.
  • The framers did not foresee the leadership implications of the presidency.

The president can claim to represent the nation due to the twin features of national election and singular authority, which foster a strong presidency.

  • According to the Whig theory of the presidency, the president was limited to expressly-granted constitutional authority.
  • Those subscribing to stewardship theory call for a strong, assertive presidential role, a presidential view that is prevalent today.
  • A strong president is needed to respond to national and foreign crises and the increased policy responsibilities of the executive. A large and active government is also conducive to a strong presidency.
  • The president is the foreign policy leader for the United States, a nation with an important political, military, and economic role in the international arena.
  • With the expansion in the role of the state in areas of economic regulation and social welfare, the president as chief executive and legislative leader has necessarily gained power.

II.Choosing the President

The presidential selection process has involved the Electoral College, the party convention system, and the primary and open caucus systems. The presidential selection system has changed from an elite-dominated process to one that is based on popular support.

The race for the presidential nomination is a lengthy one that is influenced by a few key factors.

  • Because voters pick the party’s nominees, the race for president is open to just about any prominent politician with the energy, resources, and desire to run.
  • A strong showing in the early primary contests creates momentum, which creates further public support in subsequent primaries; lack of momentum leads to a loss of public support, news coverage, and financial backing.
  • A candidate must have strength of one kind or another to prevail in a long nomination race, and factors such as name recognition, issues, and group support play an important role.
  • Money is a critical factor. The winner of the nominating races is most often the candidate that has raised the most funds.
  • The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974 provides federal matching funds to candidates as a measure to help lesser-known contenders. Money is a vital factor in the process, but many top candidates now refuse matching funds and its accompanying restrictions because they can raise more money on their own.

The national party convention is used to nominate and showcase the party’s presidential candidate.

  • The convention is a major event, bringing together the delegates elected in the state caucuses and primaries, who then approve a party platform and formally nominate the party’s presidential and vice presidential candidates.
  • The vice presidential nominee is chosen at the convention according to the wishes of the presidential nominee.

Winning the general election requires a winning coalition built on partisanship, issues, and image.

  • The general election winner is certain to be the nominee of either the Republican or Democratic party.
  • Most of the campaigning and advertising is done in “battleground” states where neither party has a clear overwhelming majority.
  • The most important factor in the election strategy is the Electoral College system. The importance of electoral votes is magnified by the unit rule. Candidates must consider both the competitiveness of each state and the number of Electoral College votes that each state will bring.

Money and the media have important roles in general elections.

  • Candidates today base their campaigns around the media, particularly the Internet and television.
  • Television advertising and televised debates are both important and permanent fixtures of presidential campaigns. Due to the recent decline in partisanship, voters are now more easily influenced by a campaign’s issues, events, and candidates.
  • Major party nominees qualify for federal funds for campaign financing.Some candidates may decline federal funds because they believe they can raise more than the matching funds will provide.

The winners of presidential elections through the 2004 election were all white males.

  • The holding of high public office is nearly an informal prerequisite for gaining the presidency.
  • Nearly all presidents to date have served previously as vice presidents, members of Congress, state governors, or top federal executives; but it is clear that there is no single template for a successful president.

III.Staffing the Presidency

The duties of the modern president far exceed the capacities of any one person, and hence a large executive staff is almost mandatory. The president’s appointment power is significant. Appointees are important sources of information and extend the president’s influence into the bureaucracy.

  • The vice presidency has no constitutional authority of its own. However, recent presidents have given vice presidents important responsibilities.
  • The Executive Office of the President (EOP) is the president’s personal bureaucracy, and includes the National Security Council, White House Office, Council of Economic Advisers, and Office of Management and Budget.
  • Of the EOP’s units, the White House Office (WHO) serves the president most directly. It includes the Communications Office, the Office of the Press Secretary, the Office of the Counsel to the President, and the Office of Legislative Affairs.
  • Policy experts, a primary source of knowledge and advice, may be less politically savvy or loyal than the personal advisers.
  • The president’s cabinet members are important players within their specific areas. The cabinet as a collective decision-making body is a thing of the past.
  • The president also appoints and is assisted by the heads and top executives of federal agencies.

A president’s responsibilities make it impossible for him or her to direct and keep track of the actions that appointees carry out in his or her name. Furthermore, the president may not be able to control numerous, independently oriented subordinates. Lower-level career appointees may be captured by their own agency and thus be resistant to presidential overtures.

Presidents have greater responsibilities than their predecessors and thus more power, but they must rely on staffers who may or may not act in the best interests of the president.

IV.Factors in Presidential Leadership

A variety of factors influence presidential leadership.

  • A president’s natural leadership qualities can vary greatly among those who hold the office.
  • The external circumstances faced by a president have an important influence on his or her ability to lead; in times of crises, presidents can wield enormous influence, while the capacity to lead diminishes during normal circumstances.
  • Every presidential term can be divided into stages corresponding to the level of authority available to the president, determining her or his ability to influence events. Thus, the honeymoon period for most presidents is a time when quick and decisive actions may occur; conversely, presidents are not as effective later in their terms of office.
  • Presidents tend to have somewhat more power and influence in foreign affairs than in domestic affairs—Wildavsky’s “two presidencies” thesis. The factors that determine success or failure in one area are common to both policy areas. In foreign affairs, presidents are assisted by their access to information from the various executive intelligence agencies.

Acquiring congressional support is essential for becoming and remaining a successful president.

  • Not all presidents possess the political skill required to successfully manage relations with Congress.
  • While presidents can exercise the veto to influence Congress, its use may signal executive weakness or undermine relations with Congress.
  • Presidents must utilize the power to persuade in a system of divided powers.
  • Presidents are more successful if they treat members of Congress as a constituency, responding to their interests and needs. The degree of partisan support for a president within Congress can have an impact upon presidential performance. For example, Republican presidents between 1954 and 1992 had a more difficult time than Democratic presidents in achieving passage of their agenda because they always had to contend with Democratic majorities in one or both houses of Congress.
  • There have been periodic collisions between the presidency and Congress. The War Powers Act is the most significant congressional attempt to restrain the president.

Public support has a major effect on the president’s ability to attain policy goals.