The Preface Will Include the Following Information

ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE

OF

MOMBASA CITY

February 2010

PREFACE

The Preface will include the following information:

• the nature of the EP, and its general role in the over-all SCP process
• the objectives, intended audience, and intended use of the EP
• the structure of the EP, in terms of the general contents of the four mainchapters

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to extend our thanks to the following:

1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1.INTRODUCTION

1.1Background

1.2Objectives

1.3The Purpose

1.4Scope of study

1.5Methodology

2.MOMBASA CITY

2.1Physical Characteriscs:

2.2Historical Development

2.3Population Characteristics:

2.3.1Population size and distribution

2.3.2Population growth rate

2.3.3Migration Trends

2.4Economic Structure

2.5Social Structure:

2.5.1Literacy Levels (gender)

2.5.2Healthcare

2.5.3Housing Structures

2.5.4Marginalised groups

3.DEVELOPMENT SETTING

3.1Tourism

3.2Fisheries

3.3Industries

3.4Transport/ Port

3.5Mining

3.6Agriculture

3.7Infrastructure

3.7.1Roads

3.7.2Water

3.7.3Energy

3.7.4Waste Management

3.7.5Other Services

4.ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING

4.1Environmental resources

4.1.1Land

4.1.2Water

4.1.3Air

4.1.4Cultural Heritage

4.2Environmental Hazards

4.2.1Flooding

4.2.2Landslides,

4.2.3Sea level rise

4.2.4Coastal Erosion

4.2.5Industrial Risks (Chemical, Radioactive)

4.2.6Fire

4ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS/ GOVERNANCE:

4.1Key Stakeholders:

4.1.1.Public Sector

4.1.2.Popular (or, Community) Sector

4.1.3.Private Sector

4.1.4.Others

4.2Management Setting:

4.3Environmental Management System:

4.3.1Fisheries Management

4.3.2Tourism Management

4.3.3Forest Management

4.3.4Other Ecosystems and Habitats

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1.INTRODUCTION

1.1Background

The key objectives of the First Phase of the SCP project are to identify andclarify environmental issues, to involve the relevant stakeholders, and toprioritise the issues to be addressed through the project. The EnvironmentalProfile plays a central role in achieving all these objectives. In fact, becauseof its crucial role, it is normally the first project activity to be undertaken.

1.2Objectives

The Environmental Profile (EP) thus has two main purposes:

• first, the EP provides a systematic over-view of the city’s development activities and how they interact with the city’s environmental resources
• second, the EP, both as a source of relevant information and through the process of its preparation, supports the process of identifying and mobilising stakeholders.

• to help identify key actors and institutions (‘stakeholders’)
• to actively involve stakeholders in the information gathering process
• to increase the awareness of participants about the SCP process and concepts
• to establish a common information base for all SCP participants
• to provide an understanding of how the SCP approach works in the local development and
• environment context
• to identify key environmental issues and their management implications

Because of these purposes, the EP is organised in a very particular way (as

is explained in detail in Part B of this Source Book). It is therefore vital that

the specific - and unique - nature and role of the Environmental Profile in

the SCP project is properly understood.

1.3The Purpose

The SCP Environmental Profile brings together information about the city’s development sectors and activities, about the city’s environmental resources and hazards, and about the city’s management systems (the groups and organisations involved in development and environment). Crucially, the EP puts this information together in a particular way, which systematically analyses how development and environment interact, sector-by-sector and issue-by-issue. In this way, the EP not only highlights and elaborates the key environmental issues facing the city, but also puts them squarely into the appropriate development and management context. It also identifies the different groups and organisations (‘stakeholders’) which have important(and often conflicting) interests in the various development activities and environmental issues

1.4Scope of study

The study has been conducted to evaluate the impacts of the overall city developmenton the environment. This study includes the assessment of impacts on the following:

• Physical environment;
• Flora and fauna;
• Land use;
• Socio-economic aspects;
• Health issues;
• Archaeological /historical/cultural sites;
• Emergency response preparedness;
• Waste management.

1.5Methodology

2.MOMBASA CITY

Mombasa district is in coast province bordering Taita Taveta to the west, Malindi to the Northwest, Mombasa and Kwale to the South. The district has an area of 4,878 km2. The position of the district puts it in a strategic location for growth in the KenyaCoast. It borders Mombasa, the second largest city in the country.

2.1Physical Characteriscs:

location, geography and topography, physical ecology, and climate

The Kenya coast extends from the Somali border at Ishakani (Longitude: 1o 41’S) in the north, to Vanga (Longitude: 4o 40’S) at the Tanzania border in the south, a distance of about 600 km along the sea front. The definition of the Kenya coast as used in this document includes seven administrative districts: Taita Taveta, Kwale, Mombasa, Kilifi, Malindi, Lamu districts and lower parts for Tana River districts. The actual region stretches roughly 150 km inland from the seafront covering an area of 67,500 km2. This is approximately 11.5% of the total area of the Republic of Kenya. In reference to the City of Mombasa, the Kenyan coast can further be divided into two parts – north and south coast. The north coast stretches from Mombasa to Kiunga; whereas the south coast stretches from Mombasa to Vanga.

The most distinctive feature of the Kenya coast is the fringing coral reef running parallel to the coast from Vanga to Malindi bay (UNEP, 1998). The Tana river which discharges into Ungwana bay and Sabaki river which discharges just north of Malindi town are two notable rivers draining into the Indian ocean. Lamu archipelago with its extensive mangrove forests, Mombasa Island, the southern complex of Gazi bay, Chale Island, Funzi Bay, Wasini Island and others, are some of the other distinct features of the coast (UNEP, 1998).

Kenya’s continental shelf is relatively narrow, generally between 5 and 10 km wide, with depths dropping below 200m within less than 4km. However it widens significantly at the mouths of rivers Tana and Sabaki, exceeding 15km off the northern end of Ungwana bay. The shelf is sedimentary in nature, dominated by fine sands, silt and mud derived from terrigenous sources (Obura, 2001). Beyond the shelf, the seabed slopes away to depths in excess of 4,000m. Although narrow, the continental shelf serves important roles as fishing grounds for thousands of artisanal fishermen living along the coast. The area of continental shelf in Kenya has been estimated at 19,120km2. Of this, some 10,994km2 is considered trawlable (UNEP, 1998).

2.2Historical Development

Physical and land use development patterns

2.3Population Characteristics:

2.3.1Population size and distribution

Human population in Kenya’s coast region is relatively large compared to other regions with much of the population concentrated around urban centres. According to the 1999 population and housing census (GOK, 1999), the population of coast province was 2,491,000, equivalent to about 8% of the national population. Between 1979 and 1989, the population of the coast province rose from 1,112,436 to 1,621,918, representing a 46% increase. Of the total population of the region, some 25% live in the city of Mombasa, another 7% live in other urban centres while the remaining 68% live in rural areas. The distribution of the population in the coast region is largely influenced by rainfall, altitude, agro-ecological area and administrative policy through which a number of settlements schemes have been created (Hoorweg et al., 2000). Due to location of most of the country’s coastal urban centres in the vicinity of estuaries, mangrove swamps and coral lagoons, the rapid growth in population places significant pressure on the coastal environment and its resources.

Table 4.1: Population data for the seven districts in coast province in 2002

Source: GOK 2002: Coast Province Profile (Unpublished data); * indicates missing value

The coastal population in Kenya is culturally heterogeneous and diverse, the largest indigenous ethnic group being the Mijikenda which is comprised of nine sub-tribes namely: Giriama, Digo, Rabai, Duruma, Kauma, Chonyi, Kambe, Ribe, and Jibana. Other indigenous coastal ethnic groups are: Taita, Pokomo, Bajuni, Orma, Sagala, Swahili. Due to its socio-economic dynamics which offer great opportunities for livelihoods and leisure, the Kenyan coast has over the centuries attracted a multiplicity of ethnic and racial groups (UNEP, 1998).

The welfare of the people is influenced by the availability, distribution and utilisation of education, health and employment options.

2.3.2Population growth rate

The coast province population growth rate as at the 1999 census was 3.5% compared to 3.1% during the previous census conducted in 1989 (GOK, 1999). As at 1989 census, Tana River District had the highest population growth rate of 4% followed by Mombasa District with a growth rate of 3.9%. Taita-Taveta district had the lowest population growth rate of 2%. By international standards, a population growth rate of over 3% is considered high as such a rate results in increasing demands on all types of resources required to meet the basic needs of the population in terms of food, health, education and shelter. The high population increase in Mombasa district as compared to other districts is attributed to the net immigration from upcountry (GOK, 1999).

Migration to the coastal region is mainly due to employment opportunities, the growth of tourism industry and access to social facilities among others. The rapidly increasing human population combined with poor resource management has led to degradation of coastal resources as indicated by impacts such as over-exploitation in nearshore fisheries, degradation of mangrove areas, shorelines changes and cultural erosion.

2.3.3Migration Trends

The coast province has received a significant number of immigrants from other parts of Kenya over the last century thereby accounting partly for the population change experienced in the long term. Labour migration of upcountry people into the coast province can be traced back as far back as 1909 when people from Central and Nyanza provinces were moving in large numbers to Mombasa and coastal plantations. The number of migrants into the coast region increased from about 222,000 between 1969 and 1979 to 275,000 during the following decade. The main recipient districts for immigrants are mainly Mombasa and Kilifi Districts (GOK, 1999).

Most people who have migrated into the coast province in the last twenty years come from Eastern, Nyanza, Western and Central Provinces. Eastern Province was a leading origin with 86,739 migrants followed by Nyanza Province with 62,404 migrants to the coast in 1989. In 1989 alone, the Mombasa and Kilifi received 266,131 and 42,164 migrants respectively. Out of a total of 421,935 migrants to Coast Province in 1989, 16,441 were from outside Kenya. As much as 1,252 of these were not registered. Mombasa district has also received the biggest number of foreign immigrants (GOK, 1999).

The high level of migration into the coast region is of great concern because it is increasing the demand on scarce resources with consequent degradation of the coastal environment.

2.4Economic Structure

Employment Distribution

2.5Social Structure:

Description of the poverty situation

2.5.1Literacy Levels (gender)

2.5.2Healthcare

2.5.3Housing Structures

General house types in Mombasa and the distribution of low income housing and slums

2.5.4Marginalised groups

3.DEVELOPMENT SETTING

This chapter includes location and physical presence of the project throughout its entire lifecycle. It covers the planning, designing, project commissioning, expansion, and close down and site rehabilitation stages of different components of the project.

3.1Tourism

Tourism has been steadily growing in Kenya since independence and over time has turned out to be one of the leading foreign exchange earners. It has recorded a steady increase in foreign exchange earnings taking lead from 1989 and reaching a peak in 1994 with an earning of KSh 28.1 billion. However, from 1995 the sector experienced a decline in performance recording an earning of KSh 17.5 billion in 1998. The major slump that occurred in 1998 was attributed to adverse publicity in the international media in 1997, civil clashes of Likoni in Mombasa in 1997, poor infrastructure caused by El Nino rains of 1997/98, the terrorist bombing of the American Embassy in Nairobi in 1998 and stiff competition from other countries with similar attractions especially Southern Africa, Caribbean and South East Asia (Republic of Kenya, 1999). Between 1998 and 2004, the contribution of coastal tourism has been ranging between 52% and 68% of the total tourism earnings in Kenya (Government of Kenya, 2005). On average, coastal tourismcontributes over 60% of total earnings from tourism and employs thousands of coastal dwellers. It accounts for 45% of the coastal economy (McClanahan et al., 2005a;

UNEP/FAO/PAP/CDA, 2000). The main attractions being beautiful sceneries, intriguing cultural and historical surroundings such as magnificent sand beaches, unique old Arab towns and the ruins of the sixteenth-century Portuguese settlements, traditional lifestyles, warm climate, the marine parks and reserves, and the terrestrial game parks and reserves (Government of Kenya, 2005; Republic of Kenya, 1999; Sindiga, 2000; UNEP/GPA and WIOMSA, 2004).

Before the slump in 1998, tourism was a leading foreign exchange earner in Kenya. It supported 560,000 people in both formal and informal sector and accounted for 18% of all Kenya’s export and foreign currency earning (UNEP/GPA and WIOMSA, 2004) and contributes 9.2% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In addition, income from tourism related economic and business activities have become an important and reliable source of revenue to the Central Government and Local Authorities.

In order to realize the full potential of tourism, the Government is in the process of developing a policy for the sector. In addition, the strategies that have been implemented in the last four years include:

• Formation of Kenya Tourist Board (KTB) to champion for development in the Tourist Industry.

• Opening of Tourist offices in foreign countries to effectively market the Industry.

• Successfully sourcing for funds from European Union to effectively market the industry.

• The Tourist Police unit has been established to strengthen national security and guarantee security to tourists.

• Strengthened the Capacity of Resource Managers, since the foundation of the Tourism Industry lies on Wildlife and Marine Resources.

• Rehabilitated the roads leading to and within the Parks.

• Continue to diversify market products for tourists.

These strategies have resulted in increased tourist arrival and earnings both nationally and in the Coast Province in particular. Coast Province currently has 306-registered star rated facilities with 34,903 beds. The number of hotel bed-nights recorded over the last five years has been on increase with the year 2004 recording 43.8% increase over 2003 performance (see table 5.1).

Table 5.1: Hotel Bed-Nights by Zone, 1998-2004(‘ 000)

3.2Fisheries

Characteristics and significance

Use of Environmental resources

Impact on Environmental Resources

Impact of environmental Hazards on Fisheries

3.3Industries

Refinery

3.4Transport/ Port

3.5Mining

3.6Agriculture

3.7Infrastructure

The district generally is well served by infrastructure such as roads and other services such as electricity, telephones, schools, health centres. Piped water supply is also connected to several parts of the district. Since the site is currently used as farmland much of the infrastructure facilities are currently not supplied but the proponent will be able to supply any necessary easily accessible infrastructure.

3.7.1Roads

3.7.2Water

3.7.3Energy

Energy is essential for the socio-economic development to meet basic sustenance needs. The area is power-supplied by the national grid from Kenya Power and Lighting Corporation.

3.7.4Waste Management

The proponent will contract private garbage collectors for waste collection services ensuring effectiveness and reliability.

3.7.5Other Services

4.ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING

This mainly consists of environmental resources and hazards .

4.1Environmental resources

4.1.1Land

4.1.2Water

Surface water

Ground Water

Coastal Seas

4.1.3Air

4.1.4Cultural Heritage

4.2Environmental Hazards

4.2.1Flooding

Characteristics

Impact

Influence

Conflict

Management

4.2.2Landslides,

4.2.3Sea level rise

4.2.4Coastal Erosion

4.2.5Industrial Risks (Chemical, Radioactive)

4.2.6Fire

Destruction of Habitats: One of the priority problems affecting the coastal areas of Kenya is the transformations and loss of marine and coastal habitats. These transformations range from dredging of waterways, deforestation, over-exploitation of living resources, diversion of fresh water flows, and construction of ports and jetties, tourist resorts, and housing developments. Global climate change, which is a crosscutting concern attributed to human activities has led to abnormal rainfall patterns, droughts, floods, and sea level changes. The socio-economic impacts of these problems have been reduced fish catches, increased coastal erosion, loss of aesthetic value and reduced income from tourism. This has caused loss of employment opportunities for local communities, changes in social structures, loss of cultural heritage and conflicts in resource use.

Land use changes along the coast and its hinterland have caused great impacts on the coastal environment. Poor land use practices along river Sabaki for instance, discharges about 2.0 million ton of sediments annually with far reaching ecological and economic consequences downstream. Although most estuarine system supports mangrove forests, massive sedimentation at the R. Sabaki mouth does not allow mangrove growth. Coral reefs and sea-grass beds in the adjacent areas have also been affected due to smothering by sediments. Some beach hotels have lost their beach frontage due to continued beach accretion thus reducing the aesthetic value of the beach along the Malindi Bay making it less attractive to the development of tourism and loss of revenue to the country (GEF 2002).

New settlements have increased the demand for natural resource products and consequently led to the encroachment and overexploitation of natural resources in the surrounding areas. Unplanned and unregulated human settlements degrade the environment through clearing of buffer vegetation in environmentally vulnerable areas e.g. close to shorelines and steep topographies. Major terrestrial forest areas affected by such settlements include Arabuko Sokoke, the Shimba Hills, Boni Dodori and Lamu Forests. Expansion of economic activities e.g. the dredging of the Lamu channel to provide additional port and harbour facilities initially interfered with the hydrology in the area leading to defoliation of affected mangroves. mangroves along the channel are now recovering. Salt extraction and overexploitation have also contributed to mangrove degradation in Ngomeni area. These activities have threatened indigenous flora and endemic fauna found in these forests.