The Leap frog Review book
Where the answers to all of your biology troubles are only a hop, skip and ribbit away!
Arlene Pimentel
Introduction
- Welcome, Scientist, to the best review book you will ever read. I say you are already a scientist, just like I am, because science is not just experiments and dissections. Science is a life long experience that we begin as toddlers. Be it trying to stick things in your mouth or wondering why there is a rainbow, this is science. And like true scientists, we have two questions that always need to be answered. How and why?
- I have taken a serious interest in Bioengineering, specifically genetics. I find it fascinating when you can manipulate cells and other structures of life in order to create something better. I would like to research and experiment with genetics in order to apply it to medicine.
- I think education is great. No I’m sorry, I meant to say that education is great. I am always up to learning something new. No reason why, I just like to know stuff. However, I abhor having to do things when they serve no purpose towards my education. I’m in high school, give me high school work. You should always strive to learn more because knowledge truly is power.
- The big picture keeps me motivated in life, as I assume it motivates others. Whenever I think I am taking on too much stress (AP courses) for no reason, I just think about how it brightens my future, how it opens more doors and it just makes me want to work harder.
Chapter One Outline
I. Life’s Hierarchical Order
A. The living world is a hierarchy, with each level of biological structure building on
the level below it
B. Each level of biological structure has emergent properties
C. Cells are an organism’s basic units of structure and function
D. The continuity of life is based on heritable information in the form of DNA
E. Structure and function are correlated at all levels of biological organization
F. Organisms are open systems that interact continuously with their environments
G. Regulatory mechanisms ensure a dynamic balance in living systems
II. Evolution, Unity, and Diversity
A. Diversity and unity are the dual faces of life on Earth
B. Evolution is the core theme of biology
III. Science as a Process
A. Testable hypotheses are the hallmarks of the scientific process
B. Science and technology are functions of society
C. Biology is a multidisciplinary adventure
Chapter One Objectives
Briefly describe unifying themes that pervade the science of biology.
-Science as a Process, Evolution, Energy Transfer, Continuity and Change, Relationship of Structure to Function, Regulation, Interdependence in Nature, Science, Technology, and Society
Diagram the hierarchy of structural levels in biology.
-See:
Explain how the properties of life emerge from complex organization.
-You can have the parts of a machine, for example, that are supposed to make the machine work. Yet, if these parts are not put organized in a certain fashion the machine is just another useless object. Same thing goes for life.
Describe seven emergent properties associated with life.
-1. Order: All characteristics of life emerge from an organism’s complex organization. 2. Reproduction: Life only comes from life; organisms reproduce their own kind. 3. Growth and development: Heritable programs in the form of DNA direct the pattern of growth and development. 4. Energy utilization: Organisms take in energy and convert it into work. 5. Response to the environment: (Says what it means). 6. Homeostasis: Regulatory mechanisms that maintain an organism’s internal environment though its external environment may change. 7. Evolutionary adaptation: Life evolves as a result of the interaction between organisms and their environment. Adaptation to one’s environment is the consequence of evolution.
Explain how technological breakthroughs contributed to the formulation of the cell theory and our current knowledge of the cell.
-Powerful microscopes allow us to be able to see the basic “strunction” of cells, therefore aiding us in our creation of theories.
Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
-Prokaryotic cells are the simplest of cells and eukaryotic cells are much more complex organisms.
Explain, in your own words, what is meant by "form fits function."
-The way an organism is built is the way it works. Your form characterizes your function.
List the five kingdoms of life and distinguish among them.
-Monera: bacteria; Protista: unicellular eukaryotes and their relatively simple multicellular relatives; Plantae: multicellular eukaryotes that carry out photosynthesis;
Fungi: organisms that absorb nutrients after decomposing organic refuse; Animalia: multicellular eukaryotes that ingest other organisms.
Outline the scientific method.
-Hypothesis, Experiment, Results.
Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning.
-Induction is reasoning set from a set of specific observations to reach a general conclusion; deduction is the opposite (general to specific).
Explain how science and technology are interdependent.
-Technology helped form science in a way. That way being that it made it easier to see things and this new sight led to theories.
Chapter Two Outline
I. Chemical Elements and Compounds
A. Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called
compounds
B. Life requires about 25 chemical elements
II. Atoms and Molecules
A. Atomic structure determines the behavior of an element
B. Atoms combine by chemical bonding to form molecules
C. Weak chemical bonds play important roles in the chemistry of life
D. A molecule’s biological function is related to its shape
E. Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds
Chapter Two Objectives
Define element and compound.
- element is a single atom, a compound is two or more elements
State four elements essential to life that make up 96% of living matter.
-carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen
Describe the structure of an atom.
-I already know this
Define and distinguish among atomic number, mass number, atomic weight, and valence.
- a.n. is the unique number for an atom, m.n. is the sum of protons and neutrons, a.w. is m.n., valence is the last shell of an atom.
Given the atomic number and mass number of an atom, determine the number of neutrons.
-Subtract the number of protons from the mass number
Explain the octet rule and predict how many bonds an atom might form.
- In order to be “perfect” or complete an atom wants to have 8 electrons in its valence shell, depending how many are already there you can predict how many bonds it will create.
Define electronegativity and explain how it influences the formation of chemical bonds.
- How negative an atom is in relation to another, how strong its pull is.
Distinguish among nonpolar covalent, polar covalent and ionic bonds.
-Nonpolar is when you want to share electrons (equal force or same atoms) and polar is when you don’t want to (unequal)
Describe the formation of a hydrogen bond and explain how it differs from a covalent or ionic bond.
-A hydrogen bond is weaker than both covalent and ionic bonds.
Ch. 3 WATER AND THE FITNESS
OF THE ENVIRONMENT
OUTLINE
I. Water’s Polarity and Its Effects
A. The polarity of water molecules results in hydrogen bonding
B. Organisms depend on the cohesion of water molecules
C. Water moderates temperatures on Earth
D. Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid because ice floats
E. Water is the solvent of life
II. The Dissociation of Water
A. Organisms are sensitive to changes in pH
III. Acid Precipitation Threatens the Fitness of the Environment
OBJECTIVES
-Describe how water contributes to the fitness of the environment to support life.
All organisms familiar to us are made mostly of water and live in a world where water dominates climate and many other features of the environment. Here on Earth, water is the biological medium-the substance that makes possible life as we know it. Life began in water and evolved therefore three billion years before spreading onto land. Modern life, even terrestial life remains tied to water. Most cells are surrounded by water, and cells contain from about 70% to 95% water. The abundance of water is a major reason Earth is habitable.
-Describe the structure and geometry of a water molecule, and explain what properties emerge as a result of this structure.
Oxygen has four valance orbitals pointing to corners of tetrahedron. Two corners contain pairs of unshared electrons and have weak negative charge. Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen. Shared electron spend more time with oxygen. The result is weak positive charge near hydrogen.
-Explain the relationship between the polar nature of water and its ability to form hydrogen bonds. List five characteristics of water that are emergent properties resulting from hydrogen bonding.
Each water molecule can form four hydrogen bonds. The positive charge of hydrogen is attracted to the negative charge of oxygen in another water molecule.
-Describe the biological significance of the cohesiveness of water.
Cohesion due to hydrogen bonding contributes to the transport of water against gravity in plants. Water reaches leaves through microscopic vessels that extend upward from the roots. Water that evaporates from a leaf is replaced by water from the vessels in the leaf.
- Distinguish between heat and temperature.
Heat: measure of the total quantity of kinetic energy due to molecular motion in a body of matter.
Temperature: measures the intensity of heat due to the average kinetic energy of the molecules.
-Explain how water's high specific heat, high heat of vaporization and expansion upon freezing affect both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
Water can absorb large amounts of heat without large changes in temperature. Large bodies of water help moderate temperature on earth. During daytime/summer; large amounts of solar energy hit earth, body of water is able to absorb large amounts of heat, without large changes in temperature. During night/winter; smaller amounts of solar energy hit earth and gradual cooling of large body of water warms air. Because of this, coastal areas have generally milder climate than inland, ocean temperatures are quite stable and since water covers most of the Earth, temperature fluctuations are within limits that permit life.
-Explain how the polarity of the water molecule makes it a versatile solvent.
Water is a versatile solvent. This means that it is a solution. It is a liquid that is a Liquid that is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances. Example – sugar water Solvent dissolving agent. Example – water. Solute Aqueous solution. Water is a very versatile solvent. Why? Water polar molecule What kinds of substances dissolve in water. Ionic compounds. Charged regions of polar water molecule electrically attracted to charged ion. Water surrounds individual ions, separating and shielding them from each other. Polar compounds -- Charged region of polar water molecules have affinity for oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules. Molecules with affinity for water Hydrophilic substances
Water is the best solvent that we know of because its polarity attracts to its charged polar substances. However, polar does not dissolve nonpolar, so water only dissolves polar substances. (there is no attraction!)
- Write the equation for the dissociation of water, and explain what is actually transferred from one molecule to another.
H2O+H2OH3O+OH-; H3O+. IS HYDRONIUM ION. OH- IS HYDROXIDE ION. H2O H+OH-.
Occasionally hydrogen atoms shared between 2 water molecules in hydrogen bond shift position. Because of this, one water molecule with extra hydrogen (H3O). One water molecule minus hydrogen (OH-). This reaction is reversible. Most of water is not ionized.
-Explain the basis for the pH scale.
The pH scale compresses the range of H= and OH- concentrations by employing a common mathematical device; logarithms. The pH declines as the H+ concentration increases. Notince, too, that although the pH scale is based on H+ concentration, it also implies OH- concentration.
-Explain how acids and bases directly or indirectly affect the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.
A substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution is called a base. They are usually <7 on the pH scale. An acid, according to the definition that most biologists use, is a substance that increases the H= concentration of a solution.
Ch. 4 CARBON AND
MOLECULAR DIVERSITY
OUTLINE
I. The Importance of Carbon
A. Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds
B. Carbon atoms are the most versatile building blocks of molecules
C. Variation in carbon skeletons contributes to the diversity of organic molecules
II. Functional Groups
- A. Functional groups also contribute to the molecular diversity of life
Objectives
- Explain how carbon’s electron configuration determines the kinds and number of bonds carbon will form.
A covalent bonding capacity of four makes it have the ability to form diverse molecules. Carbon atoms can bond with other carbon atoms, forming the carbon skeleton of organic compounds.
Figure 0402Figure 0403
-Describe how carbon skeletons may vary, and explain how this variation contributes to the diversity and complexity of organic molecules.
Carbon chains form the skeletons of organic molecules. The skeletons vary in length and may be straight, branched, or arranged in closed rings. Some carbon skeletons have double bonds, which vary in number and location. Such variation in carbon skeletons is one important source of molecular complexity and diversity that characterize living matter. These include the hydrocarbons and the isomers. Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting only of carbon and hydrogen. Variation in the architecture of organic molecules can be seen in isomers, compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structures and hence different properties. Structural isomers: variation in covalent arrangements. Geometric isomers: variation in arrangement about a double bond. Enantiomers: variation in spatial arrangement around an asymmetric carbon, resulting in molecules that are mirror images, like left and right hands.
Figure 0404Figure 0406
-Recognize the major functional groups, and describe the chemical properties of organic molecules in which they occur.
Hydroxyl group: a hydrogen atom is bonded to an oxygen atom, which in turn is bonded to the carbon skeleton of the molecule. They include the alcohols.
Carbonyl group: consists of a carbon atom joined to an oxygen atom by a double bond. If the carbonyl group is on the end of a carbon skeleton, the organic compound is called aldehyde; otherwise the compound is called ketone (for this one, there must be at least three carbons).
Carboxyl group: is found in carboxylic acids. The hydrogen of this group can dissociate to some extent, making the molecule a weak acid.
Amino group: can accept an H+, thereby acting as a base.
Ch. 6 AN INTRODUCTION TO
METABOLISM
OUTLINE
I. Metabolism, Energy and Life
A. The chemistry of life is organized into metabolic pathways
B. Organisms transform energy
C. The energy transformations of life are subject to two laws of thermodynamics
D. Organisms live at the expense of free energy
E. ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic to endergonic reactions
II. Enzymes
A. Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers
B. Enzymes are substrate-specific
C. The active site is an enzyme’s catalytic center
D. A cell’s physical and chemical environment affects enzyme activity
III. The Control of Metabolism
A. Metabolic control often demends on allosteric regulation
B. The location of enzymes within a cell helps order metabolism
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter and attending lecture, the student should be able to:
1. Explain the role of catabolic and anabolic pathways in the energy exchanges of
cellular metabolism.
- Catabolic pathways, such as those of cellular respiration, break complex molecules into simpler compounds, releasing energy in the process. Anabolic pathways build up complex molecules from simpler compounds, requiring the energy input usually provided by catabolism.
2. Distinguish between kinetic and potential energy.
- Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, while potential energy is how much energy you have right before you move.
4. Explain, in your own words, the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics.
- The First Law of Thermodynamics basically states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, the law of conservation energy. The Second Law says that every time energy changes form, there is an increase in the entropy (disorder) of the universe.
13. Describe the function of ATP in the cell.
- ATP serves as the energy shuttle of the cell.
14. List the three components of ATP and identify the major class of
macromolecules of which it belongs.
- Ribose of carbohydrates, adenine and phosphate of nucleic acids.
15. Explain how ATP performs cellular work.
- ATP performs cellular work by using energy coupling, the use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one.
19. Explain the relationship between enzyme structure and enzyme specificity.
- Each type of enzyme has a unique active site that combines specifically with its substrate.
20. Explain the induced fit model of enzyme function and describe the catalytic
cycle of an enzyme.
- Induced fit brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to work on the substrate and catalyze the chemical reaction.
22. Explain how substrate concentration affects the rate of an enzyme-controlled
reaction.
-
23. Explain how enzyme activity can be regulated or controlled by environmental
conditions, cofactors, enzyme inhibitors and allosteric regulators.
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24. Distinguish between allosteric activation and cooperativity.
-