The Effect of General and Drug-Specific Family Environments on Comorbid and Drug-Specific Problem Behavior: A Longitudinal Examination

Marina Epstein

Karl G. Hill

Jennifer A. Bailey

J. David Hawkins

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS

Appendix 1 Conceptual model of adolescent and adult environments and age 33 outcomes

Note. General Family Environment is coded to reflect general positive family functioning.

Appendix 2 Parameter estimates, standard errors, and confidence intervals

Parameter / Unstandardized
Estimate / SE / 95% CI / Standardized Estimate /
Measurement Model
Family Env. (10-18) → Management
Family Env. (10-18) → Bonding
Family Env. (10-18) → Conflict
Family Env. (10-18) → Involvement
Alcohol Env. (10-18) → Drinking attitudes
Alcohol Env. (10-18) → Parent drinking
Alcohol Env. (10-18) → Handling alcohol
Tobacco Env. (10-18) → Tobacco attitudes
Tobacco Env. (10-18) → Parent smoking
Tobacco Env. (10-18) → Handling cigarettes
Family Env. (27-30) → Bonding
Family Env. (27-30) → Conflict
Family Env. (27-30) → Involvement
Problem Behavior (33) → Alcohol diagnosis
Problem Behavior (33) → Tobacco diagnosis
Problem Behavior (33) → Drug use
Problem Behavior (33) → Crime
Problem Behavior (33) → Sexual Risk / .85
.70
-.80
.59
.44
.86
.67
.47
.80
.53
.63
-.65
.46
.70
.44
1.15
.53
.87 / .04
.05
.05
.05
.05
.07
.09
.06
.08
.06
.04
.03
.04
.14
.11
.29
.10
.17 / .78 - .92
.62 - .79
-.87 - -.72
.51 - .67
.36- .53
.74 - .98
.52 - .82
.37 - .56
.66 - .93
.43 - .62
.57 - .68
-.70 - -.59
.41 - .52
.48 - .93
.25 - .62
.67 - 1.63
.36 - .70
.60 - 1.15 / .85
.70
-.80
.59
.45
.86
.67
.47
.80
.53
.86
-.91
.62
.72
.48
.86
.61
.79
Structural Paths – Model 1
Family Env. (10-18) → Problem Behavior
Alcohol Env. (10-18) → Alcohol diagnosis
Tobacco Env. (10-18) → Tobacco diagnosis
Delinquent Beh. → Problem Behavior
Delinquent Beh. → Crime
BD → Problem Behavior
Gender (male) → Problem Behavior
Asn. Am. → Problem Behavior
Af. Am. → Problem Behavior
SES → Problem Behavior / -.29
.12
.31
.08
.41
.37
.30
-.62
.41
.17 / .09
.11
.11
.42
.45
.09
.15
.28
.21
.19 / -.43 - -.15
-.07 - .30
.12 - .49
-.60 - .77
-.33 - 1.14
.23 - .52
.05 - .54
-1.07 - -.17
.06 - .76
-.15 - .47 / -.24
.08
.24
.01
.06
.28
.12
-.21
.14
.07
Structural Paths – Model 2
Alcohol Env. (10-18) → Alcohol use (18)
Family Env. (10-18) → Alcohol use (18)
BD → Alcohol use (18)
Delinquent Beh. → Alcohol use (18)
Gender (male) → Alcohol use (18)
Asn. Am. → Alcohol use (18)
Af. Am. → Alcohol use (18)
SES → Alcohol use (18)
Tobacco Env. (10-18) → Cigarette use (18)
Family Env. (10-18) → Cigarette use (18)
BD → Cigarette use (18)
Delinquent Beh. → Cigarette use (18)
Gender (male) → Cigarette use (18)
Asn. Am. → Cigarette use (18)
Af. Am. → Cigarette use (18)
SES → Cigarette use (18)
Family Env. (10-18) → Family Env. (27-30)
Alcohol Env. (10-18) → Family Env. (27-30)
Tobacco Env. (10-18) → Family Env. (27-30)
Gender (male) → Family Env. (27-30)
Asn. Am. → Family Env. (27-30)
Af. Am. → Family Env. (27-30)
SES → Family Env. (27-30)
Family Env. (10-18) → Partner drinks (27-30)
Alcohol Env. (10-18) → Partner drinks (27-30)
Alcohol use (18) → Partner drinks (27-30)
Gender (male) Env. → Partner drinks (27-30)
Asn. Am. → Partner drinks (27-30)
Af. Am. → Partner drinks (27-30)
SES → Partner drinks (27-30)
Family Env. (10-18) → Partner smokes (27-30)
Tob. Env. (10-18) → Partner smokes (27-30)
Cigarette use (18) → Partner smokes (27-30)
Gender (male) Env. → Partner smokes (27-30)
Asn. Am. → Partner smokes (27-30)
Af. Am. → Partner smokes (27-30)
SES → Partner smokes (27-30)
Family Env. (10-18) → Problem Behavior (33)
Family Env. (27-30)→ Problem Behavior (33)
Partner drinks → Problem Behavior (33)
Partner smokes → Problem Behavior (33)
BD → Problem Behavior (33)
Delinquent Beh. → Problem Behavior (33)
Gender (male) → Problem Behavior (33)
Asn. Am. → Problem Behavior (33)
Af.Am. → Problem Behavior (33)
SES → Problem Behavior (33)
Alcohol Env. (10-18) → Alcohol diagnosis (33)
Alcohol use (18) → Alcohol diagnosis (33)
Family Env. (27-30)→ Alcohol diagnosis (33)
Partner drinks → Alcohol diagnosis (33)
Cig. Env.(10-18) → Tobacco diagnosis (33)
Cigarette use (18) → Tobacco diagnosis (33)
Family Env. (27-30)→ Tobacco diagnosis (33)
Partner smokes → Tobacco diagnosis (33)
Delinquent Beh. → Crime (33) / .35
-.60
.64
1.06
.57
-.28
.93
.05
1.66
-.60
1.25
1.49
-.99
1.44
-.38
-.37
.37
-.09
-.06
-.07
-.02
-.62
.10
-.17
.09
.00
-.34
-.52
-.36
.15
-.16
.21
.02
-.02
-.38
.05
.04
-.19
-.15
.37
.35
.37
-.12
.53
-.19
.73
.03
.11
.04
.08
-.11
.20
.06
.08
.07
.40 / .21
.21
.12
.82
.45
.45
.47
.45
.42
.32
.34
1.19
.62
1.79
1.14
.80
.06
.08
.07
.10
.20
.14
.13
.09
.12
.03
.17
.33
.27
.20
.07
.09
.01
.13
.22
.19
.16
.10
.09
.17
.14
.11
.48
.19
.33
.29
.21
.12
.02
.09
.15
.12
.01
.09
.13
.44 / .00 - .70
-.94 - -.26
.43 - .84
-.29 - 2.41
-.17 - 1.30
-1.02 - .47
.15 - 1.71
-.70 - .80
.98 - 2.35
-1.13 - -.08
.70 - 1.80
-.47 - 3.45
-2.00 - .03
-1.50 - 4.39
-2.26 - 1.50
-1.68 - .95
.27 - .48
-.22 - .04
-.18 - .05
-.24 - .10
-.36 - .32
-.86 - -.39
-.10 - -.31
-.32 - .02
-.12 - .28
-.05 - .04
-.62 - -.06
-1.06 - .01
-.81 - .08
-.17 - .48
-.27 - -.04
.05 - .36
.00 - .04
-.23 - .20
-.74 - .01
-.27 - .36
-.22 - .29
-.35 - -.03
-.31 -.00
.09 - .65
.12 - .58
.20 - .55
-.91 - .68
.22 - .85
-.73 - .36
.26 - 1.20
-.32 - .38
-.08 - .30
.02 - .07
-.10 - .28
-.36 - .15
.00 - .40
.04 - .08
-.07 - .23
-.14 - .28
-.32 - 1.12 / .09
-.15
.14
.05
.07
-.03
.10
.01
.27
-.10
.19
.05
-.08
.10
-.03
-.03
.33
-.08
-.06
-.03
-.01
-.24
.05
-.16
.08
-.01
-.16
-.21
.14
.07
-.15
.19
.13
-.01
-.15
.02
.02
-.13
-.12
.27
.26
.24
-.02
.18
-.05
.21
.01
.08
.12
.07
-.08
.15
.27
.07
.06
.06
Correlation Specifications
Alcohol Env. (10-18) with Family Env. (10-18)
Cig. Env. (10-18) with Family Env. (10-18)
BD with Family Env. (10-18)
Delinquent Beh. with Family Env. (10-18)
Gender (Male) with Family Env. (10-18)
Asn. Am. with Family Env. (10-18)
Af. Am. with Family Env. (10-18)
SES with Family Env. (10-18)
Smoking Attitudes with Drinking Attitudes
Cig. Env. (10-18) with Alcohol Env. (10-18)
BD with Alcohol Env. (10-18)
Delinquent Beh. with Alcohol Env. (10-18)
Gender (Male) with Alcohol Env. (10-18)
Asn. Am with Alcohol Env. (10-18).
Af. Am. with Alcohol Env. (10-18)
SES with Alcohol Env. (10-18)
BD with Tobacco Env. (10-18)
Delinquent Beh. with Tobacco Env. (10-18)
Gender (Male) with Tobacco Env. (10-18)
Asn. Am. with Tobacco Env. (10-18)
Af. Am. with Tobacco Env. (10-18)
SES with Tobacco Env. (10-18)
Cigarette use (18) with Alcohol use (18)
Partner drinks with Family Env. (27-30)
Partner smokes with Family Env. (27-30)
Partner drinks with Partner smokes
Delinquent Beh. with BD
Gender (male) with BD
Asn. Am. with BD
Af. Am. with BD
SES with BD
Gender (male) with Delinquent Beh.
Asn. Am. with Delinquent Beh.
Af. Am. with Delinquent Beh.
SES with Delinquent Beh.
Asn. Am. with Gender (male)
Af. Am. with Gender (male)
SES with Gender (male)
Asn. Am. with Af. Am
Asn. Am. with SES
Af. Am. with SES / -.03
-.02
-.26
-.06
-.05
-.01
-.01
-.08
.54
.34
.16
.02
.03
-.18
-.06
-.12
.19
.04
.00
-.13
.01
.06
2.64
-.35
-.12
.46
.06
.11
-.10
.03
-.01
.02
-.01
.02
.02
.00
.00
-.01
-.05
.04
.07 / .06
.06
.05
.01
.02
.02
.02
.02
.05
.06
.05
.01
.03
.02
.02
.02
.05
.01
.03
.03
.03
.03
.78
.07
.07
.08
.01
.02
.02
.02
.02
.00
.00
.00
.00
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01
.01 / -.12 - .07
-.13 - .08
-.33 - -.18
-.08 - -.04
-.08 - -.01
-.05 - .02
-.04 -.02
-.12 - -.04
.47 - .62
.24 - .44
.09 - .24
.00 - .03
-.01 - .08
-.21 - -.14
-.09 - -.02
-.16 - -.08
.10 - .28
.02 - .06
-.05 - .04
-.17 - -.08
-.03 - .06
.02 - .11
1.35 - 3.93
-.47 - -.24
-.23 - -.01
.33 - .60
.04 - .07
.08 - .14
-.13 - -.07
.01 - .06
-.04 - .03
.02 - .03
-.01 - .00
.01 - .02
.01 - .03
-.02 - .01
-.01 - .02
-.03 - .01
-.07 - -.04
.03 - .06
.05 - .08 / -.03
-.02
-.29
-.29
-.09
-.04
-.03
-.15
.69
.34
.18
.07
.07
-.42
-.13
-.24
.21
.20
-.01
-.30
.03
.13
.12
-.35
-.12
.46
.30
.24
-.27
.09
-.01
.23
-.09
.21
.20
.00
.02
-.05
-.30
.21
.32

Note. General Family Environment is coded to reflect general positive family functioning.

Appendix 3

Family of origin general family environment (ages 10 - 18).

Family management was assessed using six items that measured parents’ monitoring, rules, discipline, reward practices, and whether parents “put the child down” (except “My parents put me down” was not assessed at 12th grade). Response options were 1 YES!, 2 yes, 3 no, and 4 NO! Reliability across adolescence was high (α = .83).

Family conflict measures were created using items assessing whether respondents “talked things out” with parents when there were disagreements (ages 10 - 12), how family members “got along” with each other (ages 10 - 14), and how often they criticized each other, argued, or yelled (ages 14 - 18). Responses options were on a 4-point scale (1 YES! to 4 NO!) or on a 5-point scale (1 almost always to 5 almost never).

Family involvement measures were available at ages 10 - 16, and assessed whether respondents engaged in activities with their family such as meals, housework, walks, attending movies/theater, and other recreation activities (all coded as 0 did not do this with family or 1 did this with family). Respondents were also asked how often they talked with parents about school and received homework help (1 never to 4 everyday).

Family bonding measures were based on three items that assessed how much youth confided in family members and two items that assessed their desire to be like their parents. Response options ranged from 1 YES! to 4 NO!. In 12th grade, five additional items were added assessing how close respondents felt to their mother/father/siblings and how much they enjoyed spending time with their mother/father.

Family of origin alcohol family environment (ages 10 - 16).

Parent drinking was measured when youth were ages 10 - 16. Parents were asked to report on the frequency of their own drinking and the drinking of their spouse or partner (1 never to 6 three or more drinks a day). Parent reports of heavy drinking (5 - 6 drinks) were available when youth were ages 13 - 16. Possible responses ranged from 1 never to 4 more than half the time. At ages 14, 15, and 16, parents were asked “On those days when you drink, how much do you typically drink?” Response options ranged from 1 less than 1 drink to 9 twelve or more drinks.

Parent drinking attitudes were measured using items reflecting parents’ perceived harm from drinking and their feelings about their child drinking. Response options ranged from 1 very great risk to 5 no risk. Parents also were asked “How would you feel about (student) using alcohol?” Responses ranged from 1 I would absolutely forbid my child’s use to 5 okay for my child to use if (he/she) wants.

Youth involvement in parent drinking was assessed at ages 10 - 14 with one question: “Has [student] ever brought, opened, or poured a drink containing alcohol for a family member?” Possible responses were 1 yes or 0 no.

Family of origin tobacco family environment (ages 10 - 16).

Parent smoking was measured when youth were ages 10 - 14. Two items assessed frequency of smoking at each wave for the index parent and for their partner. Response options ranged from 1 never smoked to 5 a pack a day or more. Additionally, at ages 13 and 14, parents were asked how often they smoke in front of the target child (1 almost never to 5 almost always).

Parent Smoking attitudes were measured using two items: one reflecting parents’ perceived harm from smoking and one reflecting their feelings about their child smoking. Reponses were anchored at 1 very great risk of harm and 5 no risk of harm for the first and 1 I would absolutely forbid my child’s use and 5 okay for my child to use if (he/she) wants for the second item.

Youth Involvement in parent smoking was assessed at ages 12, 13, and 14 by one question (“How often does [student] get or light cigarettes for a family member?”). Possible responses ranged from 1 never to 5 several times a week.