The Church of the Fourth Century, (ca. A.D. 325-430)
A.Importance of this century
1. More information is available concerning this century than the preceding three or the following seven
2. This century held many important leaders and issues
B.Persecution by Diocletian, 284-305 (lived in Nicomedia)
1.Outbreak of persecution instigated primarily by his son-in-law, Galerius whom Lactanius had called “a wild beast.” In A.D. 303-4, there were four edicts of persecution; prior to this time Diocletian, whose wife was Christian, had observed Galienus’ Edict of Toleration
a.First edict of persecution, Feb. 303, Roman feast of “Terminalia”
1). all churches closed
2).Christian writings burned
3) resisting Christians sold as slaves, properties taken
b.TRADITORES = Christians who turned over sacred books
2.Further persecutions
In Antioch the edict was posted. John, a Christian, removed it and tore it up. He was roasted on a fire. Also, a fire broke out in the palace in Nicomedia - the Christians were blamed
a.Edict # 2 - all churches burned
b. Edict # 3 - all clergy arrested
c.Edict # 4 - Edict of April 30th, 304 by Maximian, Augustus of West: all Christians to be run down: forced to worship Roman gods upon pain of death
** Diocletian retires, A.D. 305; commits suicide in A.D. 313.
3.Continuation of persecution: continued for eight more years, 303-311. Lasted in scattered parts till 313
Edict # 5 A.D. 308, most severe
-Galerius declares Christians must eat meat sacrificed to gods
- sacrificial wine sprinkled over meats in market
- Christophorus = name for those tortured and martyred, literally “Christ-bearers”
-See Eusebius, p. 335.
4.Death of Galerius (Augustus in East)
a. Edict of Toleration, A.D. 311; right before death (he believed his death due to blood on his hands)
b. died a miserable death
C.Rise and Rule of Constantine, A.D. 272-337
1.Early years (son of Constantius Chlorus, S. III, 18, and Helena, a barmaid)
Ambrose: said Helena was wife of C.C.; divorced when C.C. became Caesar and married Theodora
Others: said she was concubine
a.early years spent in army
b. kidnapped, held hostage by Galerius (in Nicomedia) in order to bring Constantius Chlorus into line
c.went to his father in Britain, A.D 306
d. declared by his army to be Augustus; asked instead to be made Caesar (lest Galerius relieve him of his head)
2.Rise to prominence
a.A.D. 312 - Constantine marches on Rome, declares himself Augustus in West
b.Rival Maxentius consults Sybilline Oracle and is told, “Go out and a great enemy of Rome will fall”
c.Constantine has vision of cross in sky (previously fought for Apollo the Sun-god)
d. A.D 312 - battle at Milvian Bridge, north of Rome; Maxentiusdrowns crossing Tiber R.
e.A.D 313- two Augusti meet in Milan (now seat of Western empire); Constantine and Licinius issue joint edict of toleration
- freedom to build churches, to gather together
- properties returned
f.A.D 323 - Constantine and Licinius meet in battle: Licinius captured, executed, Empire reunited
g. A.D 324 - all Christian exiles recalled, property restored from state treasury, confessors honored, Constantine claims personal conversion.
3.Schisms under Constantine
a.Melitian Schism in Alexandria
Similar to earlier Novatian Schism in Carthage, Melitius sets up a rival church under his authority when the Bishop of Alexandria is lenient toward returning lapsi. Settled against Melitius at Council of Nicea, A.D. 325.
b. Donatist schism in Carthage of N.Africa
-Bishop of Carthage ordained his replacement when accused of being a Traditore.
-Collective bishops of N. Africa refused his appointment (“Bishop can only be ordained by hands not stained with sin”), but they were overturned on the original bishop’s appeal to bishops of Gaul.
-Constantine refused the appeal of Bishop Donatus, the rival bishop appointed by his peers in N. Africa
“The party… called Donatists objected and separated themselves from the major church group, declaring it to be apostate and its baptism invalid . . . . The party was combated by Augustine in the early fifth century but Donatism was not destroyed until the invasion by the Arian vandals in A.D. 478 and Islam in the seventh century.” -Baker’s DOT, p. 172.
c.Arian Schism, the only doctrinal schism of the IV; settled at Council of Nicea
4.Constantine’s civil accomplishments
a.unified and preserved Empire; widespread education, peace
b. founded Constantinople (Istanbul); then called New Rome, Byzantium
c.Social legislation
- repealed Dicoletian’s socialism
- infanticide, cruel punishments stopped
- encouraged manumission
- ended gladiatorial displays (in Constantinople)
5.Relation to the Church (briefly, political)
a.many favorable laws (clergy exempt from taxes, military service; right to will property to church, blue laws)
b. called and presided over Council of Nicea, A.D 325
- called himself bishop of the bishops
- underwrote expenses
c.Encouraged Christian scholarship (close associate, Eusebius of Caesarea)
- Eusebius was offered bishopric, stayed at Palestine near his sources
- Lactantius, Christian scholar in school of Diocletian, wrote on deaths from persecutions; tutored Constantine’s sons
- ordered 50 Bibles to be prepared, see Metzger, Text of NT, 78
6.Encouraged study of geography of Holy land
a.Helena, mother of C. took pilgrimage to Holy Land (80 years old)
b. toured historical sites, built churches
c.Onomasticon =“Name Book” on Holy land sites
d. brought back nails from cross (?)
7.Alleged “Donation of Constantine:” Used by Papacy in Middle ages to buttress claims to temporal possessions of the empire
“For some centuries (date of discovery, middle 8th century) an account had been developing concerning the supposedly miraculous healing and conversion of Constantine by the Bishop of Rome. The grateful Constantine was supposed to have made liberal grants of rights and territories to the bishop. These stories were combined in a document known as the Donation of Constantine and given wide circulation during the middle ages…. In the document, Constantine greeted Sylvester and the bishop of the church and went on to relate that he had been healed from leprosy and baptized by Sylvester. In return he declared that the church at Rome was to have precedence over all other churches, and that its bishop was the supreme bishop.” Cairns, p. 198.
Also, Schaff III, p. 35 (proved false by Lorenzo Valla, Papal secretary, 1440)
8.Constantine’s religion and character
a.first and foremost a politician
b. was accused of murdering wife and son (son executed for conspiracy, incest)
c.submitted to pagan rites, became “Pontifex Maximus”
d. consulted soothsayers
e.baptized near end of life, by Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian; died Pentecost, May 22, 337
f.indifferent to Arian controversy, S. III, p. 36
D.Rise of Arianism/Council of Nicea
1.Early origins of Arianism
a.Grew out of dynamic monarchianism, but was reaction to Sabellianism (Christ not to be identified so closely with the Father)
b. Christ the prototokos, the first created being, midway between God and man
d. leader - Arius, died A.D. 336 (S.III, p. 618)
- presbyter from Alexandria (as was Athanasius!)
- BUT: Alexander, bishop of Alexandria (not Arian)
e.Arianism spread throughout the East; open controversy ca. A.D. 318,320
2.Council of Nicea, A.D.325 (S. III, p. 622)
a.see Hodge, I, p. 455 for summary. FIRST ECUMENICAL COUNCIL
b. Calling of council
- called, underwritten by Constantine
- Nicea, 20 mi. from Nicomedia
- Many delegates from Eastern churches, 7 from west
- moderated by Hosius (orthodox) from Cordova
c.Deliberations of the Council regarding Arianism (III, p. 62)
1) Groups
- Arians: Arius, Eusebius of Nicomedia (20 bishops): Jesus a lesser god created by God the Father
- Orthodox: Alexander, Athanasius: Jesus equal to God the Father in essence and will, homo-ousian
- Mediating group: led by Eusebius of Caesarea: Jesus “similar” to God the Father in essence, homoi-ousian
2) Deliberations
- Arian creed attacked and destroyed
- Eusebius presented ancient Palestinian Confession, acceptable to Arians, avoided homo-ousios
- Orthodox refused, insisted on inclusion of homo-ousios
- Constantine threw weight with orthodox majority
- See Shelly, Church History in Plain Language, p. 118
d. Other deliberations
1)Easter date: Easter to be on Sunday, first Sunday of full moon after vernal equinox (Mar.22 - Apr.25)
2) Donatist schism: (re: laxness in treating Lapsi) decision of Constantine sustained; Donatists ordered to return, which they did not do
3)Miletian schism: strict group prevailed (under Melitius)
4)Celibacy (during time of growing monasticism); Hosius favored celibacy, but final opinion avoided
3.Arian controversy until death of Constantine
a.Work of Athanasius, A.D. 296-373
1.called Father of Orthodoxy
2.appointed Bishop of Alexandria, A.D. 328
3.wrote extensively - “faith should persuade, not force”
4.wrote much on deity of Christ
5.exiled 5 time before death (total of 20 years)
b.political maneuverings of Arians
1.attacked personal weaknesses of friends of Athanasius
2.Eusebius of Nicomedia persuaded Constantine to bring Arians out of exile
3. through false accusations (murder, withholding grain shipments from Alexandria) Athanasius was tried in court several times, and spent 20 years in exile (five exiles by four emperors) for his refusal to compromise the eternal deity of Christ. Hence, “Athanasius Contra Mundum.”
c. Return and death of Arius
1.A.D. 315, Council of Jerusalem; Arius restored, made bishop of Alexandria
2.A.D. 336, Arius dies on way to Alexandria
E. Reign of Constantius
1.Constantius received the eastern empire and dispatched his brothers, Constantine II in the west and Constans in Italy.
2. Constantius promoted Arian Christianity and would exile Athanasius and all orthodox leaders
3.Last days of Athanasius
- Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, a friend of Athanasius, denied the integrity of Christ’s human nature: said Christ’s body and soul were physical while His spirit was divine; opposed by Athanasius who used the term hupostasis (personae in Latin) to describe the distinctions between the persons of the Godhead without dividing their essence/being
- Athanasius died in 373; did not see final destruction of Arianism
*** APOLLINARIANISM opposes both “the Arian view of the mutability of the Logos and the complete union of full human and divine natures…. In the incarnation the Logos (was) taking the place of the rational human soul in Christ.” Baker, DOT, p. 55
3. Other Orthodox leaders
a.Hilary of Poitiers: (leader of Orthodox in Gaul) A.D. 315-368
- convinced of doctrine of Trinity from Scriptures
- elected bishop of Poitiers 3 years after conversion
- anathematized by several Arian church councils
- exiled by Constantius
- wrote 12 books on the Trinity
b. Cappadocian Fathers
1) Basil (the Great) A.D. 329-379 from Caesarea
2) Gregory Nazianzen
3) Gregory of Nyssa - younger brother of Basil; Nazianzen, friend of both
4) All three wrote against Arians and argued from Trinitarian formula in N.T.
F.Julian the Apostate (A.D. 361-363, about 18 months)
1.Background in Schaff III, p. 41
a.nephew of Constantine who was reared by Constantius as an Arian Christian
b.Religion: Neo-Platonism, superstition, asceticism, followed Christian morality;had mystic relationships with old Roman gods; built pagan shrines
2.Attitude toward Christianity
a.despised Christianity because of slaughter of family by Constantius
b. Taxed Christians heavily
c.removed Christian symbols and called Christians “Galileans”
d. called back Arian.exiles in hopes the ensuing doctrinal conflict would destroy the church
e.Athanasius worked for unity of Church; accepted the semi-Arians
f.Athanasius exiled by Julian because of success in unifying the Church.
g.commissioned rebuilding of temple in Jerusalem in A.D. 362; never completed
h. DECREE - Christians no longer able to teach in Imperial schools
i.confiscated Church properties (after passive efforts proved fruitless)
3. Death of Julian (at 32 yr. old)
a.died in battle in Parthyia; note final words
b. wanted to conquer all of known world
c.new emperor selected by army, Jovian, an Orthodox Christian
G.Downfall of Arianism (A.D. 363-381)
1.Transitional period after Julius
a.Jovian, A.D. 363-4, emperor of East and West
- brought Athanasius out of exile (4th time) - died in tent from asphyxiation
b.Valens (last Arian emperor) A.D. 364-78 in East
- exiled Athanasius (5th and last time)
1)Gregory of Nazianzus (Nazianzen) A.D. 330-389, bishop of Nazianzus
- went to Constantinople; influenced Church against Arians
- appointed patriarch of Constantinople; challenged by opposition and stepped down quietly
- wrote Defense of the Trinity
2)Gregory of Nyssa A.D. 330-395
- overshadowed by Basil, though a greater scholar in his own right
- Appointed by Basil to be bishop of Nyssa
- influential at Council of Constantinople (favored Origen as theologian)
-opposed Apollinarianism; defended full deity and full humanity of Christ
*** popularized the concept of “subsistence” of each Person of the Triune God
3)Ambrose of Milan, ca. 330-397
- from Christian family, father governor of Gaul
- consecrated bishop of Milan, A.D. 374
- refused communion to Theodosius after the emperor’s heavy-handedness in Thessalonica
- refused to yield church buildings in Milan to Arian leaders
- mentor of Augustine
Told Augustine to avoid controversy over adiophora such as liturgical forms: “When in Rome, do as the Romans do.”
2.Accession of Theodosius, A.D. 379-395
a. Religion of Theodosius : orthodox Catholic
**-made Christianity the official religion of empire in 380
- baptized in 380; refused to undergo rite of Pontifex Maximus upon becoming emperor
TITLE NOT USED FOR 200 YEARS (later taken by Pope)
- 381 outlawed heretical churches, religions; gave properties to catholic church
- convened Council of Constantinople
- 390 humbled by Ambrose
*** THEODOSIUS WAS THE LAST EMPEROR OVER A UNITED ROMAN EMPIRE ***
H. Council of Constantinople, Schaff III p. 638
1.Calling of Council
a. called by Emperor
b. desired to spread orthodoxy; 150 bishops
2.End of Arianism
a.Nicean creed reaffirmed
b. slightly revised, S. III p. 667-669
3.Macedonianism condemned
a. promoted by Macedonius, bishop of Constantinople, a semi-Arian
b. denied deity of Holy Spirit; pneumatomachism
4.Apollinarianism condemned: Jesus was two persons in one
5.Constantinople the second primary bishopric, after Rome
Comparison of two versions of Nicene Creed from Schaff’s Creeds of Christendom (source = Wikipedia)
First Council of Nicea (325) / First Council of Constantinople (381)Webelieve in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of all things visible and invisible. / We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Makerofheavenand earth, andof all things visible and invisible.
And in oneLordJesus Christ, theSon of God, begotten of the Father [theonly-begotten; that is, of the essence of the Father, God of God], Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being ofone substance with the Father; / And in one Lord Jesus Christ, theonly-begottenSon of God, begotten of the Fatherbefore allworlds(æons), Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father;
By whom all things were made [both in heaven and on earth]; / by whom all things were made;
Who for us men, and for oursalvation, came down and was incarnate and was made man; / who for us men, and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnateby the Holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary, and was made man;
He suffered, and the third day he rose again, ascended into heaven; / he was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered,and was buried, and the third day he rose again,according to the Scriptures, andascended into heaven,andsittethon theright hand of the Father;
From thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead. / from thence he shallcome again,with glory, to judge the quick and the dead;
whose kingdom shall have no end.
And in the Holy Ghost. / And in the Holy Ghost,the Lord and Giver of life, who proceedeth from the Father, who with the Father and the Son together is worshiped and glorified, who spake by the prophets.
Inone holy catholic and apostolic Church; we acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins; we look for theresurrection of the dead, and the life of theworld to come. Amen.
[But those who say: 'There was a time when he was not;' and 'He was not before he was made;' and 'He was made out of nothing,' or 'He is of another substance' or 'essence,' or 'The Son of God is created,' or 'changeable,' or 'alterable'—they are condemned by the holy catholic and apostolic Church.]
KNOW DATES OF COUNCILS
NiceaA.D. 325
ConstantinopleA.D. 381
EphesusA.D. 431
ChalcedonA.D. 451
Preview of Next 2 Councils
Ephesus,431: Nestorianism, Pelagianism
Chalcedon,451: Nestorianism, Eutychianism
KNOW FOURDEVELOPMENTS OF FOURTH CENTURY
1.Church Councils begin
2.Downfall of Paganism
3.Barbarian missions
4.Growth of Monasticism
I.Barbarian missions under Ulfilas, A.D. 311-381, missionary to Goths
1.captured by Goths while a youth
2.returned later to Constantinople, trained (Arian)
3.ordained bishop of Goths, A.D. 341, in Constantinople
a.Many Goths converted
b.Christian Goths were persecuted, migrated to Romania (near Roman Empire)
5.Translated Bible into Gothic (developed 24 letter alphabet), but did not translate Kings—said Goths already too warlike
J.Monasticism
- little monasticism before A.D. 300
- thousands of hermit monks by A.D. 400
1.Causes of Monasticism
a.unbalanced admiration of Paul’s example
b. desire to escape worldliness of empire and growing worldliness in church
c. Personal reasons - escape responsibility, desire for solitude, escape temptations
d.pride? some prestige in seclusion
eclimates conducive to monasticism
2.Paul of Thebes, ca. 340,traditionallyFIRST Christian HERMIT
a.Egyptian, lived in cave; Egyptian desert near Red Sea
b. fled persecution of Decius, A.D. 250
c.lived life of prayer and penance
3St. Anthony, A.D. 251-356, first Christian MONK S.III, 181
a.bright, shy; memorized most of Bible
c.after parent’s death he gave away possessions, went into desert, fasted and prayed
d.visited by Athanasius who was impressed with his piety, wrote biography of Anthony
e.organized followers into little cells
g.founder of Anchoritism (“withdrawal to the countryside”)emphasizing ascetic holiness
4.Supporting influences of monasticism
a.Athanasius and Jerome promoted monastic living
b. Basil started small communities in Turkey, establishing clergy for monasteries and nunneries
K.Downfall of Paganism
1.Constantine felt it would die on its own; A.D. 390-400 pagan proponents in urban centers died out in the face of political and social opposition.
2.Official sanction of paganism gone with rejection of Pontifex Maximus by Theodosius
3.In A.D. 381paganism banned by Theodosius, although a remnant survived for centuries in rural areas (pagas=“peasant,” those not educated)
4.Valentinian outlawed magicians, soothsayers
5.Gratian removes state funds from temples, removed Altar of Victory from Senate