THE CHARACTER OF JUSTINIANAND THEODORA

Procopius, about A.D. 565

Justinian, the ruler of the Byzantine Empire from a.d. 527 to 565, tried to reestablishthe ancient Roman Empire. With iron-handed control and at a ruinous cost,Justinian eventually regained almost all the territory of the old empire. During thisperiod the Byzantine historian Procopius wrote official accounts of Justinian’sreign, praising the emperor for his great accomplishments and noble conduct.However, after Justinian died, Procopius wrote a different account, his Secret

History, (which some historians distrust as a source) in which he blasted the emperor and his wife Theodora for their crueltyand dishonesty. According to their court historian and biographer, the emperor and his wife were tyrants, pure and simple. Procopius especially resented Theodora, and he did not believe that the rule of law was respected at the court.

T H I N K T H R O U G H H I S T O RY: Recognizing Bias

Do you feel that Procopius’ description of Justinian and Theodora is biased? Explain

your answer.

All that has befallen the Roman nation in its wars up to the present day hasbeen narrated by me, as far as it proved possible, on the plan of arranging all theaccounts of its activities in accordance with their proper time and place. Henceforth,however, this plan of composition will be followed by me no longer, forhere shall be set down everything that came to pass in every part of the RomanEmpire. The reason for this is that it was not possible, as long as the actors were

still alive, for these things to be recorded in the way they should have been. Forneither was it possible to elude the vigilance of multitudes of spies, nor, if detected,to escape a most cruel death. Indeed, I was unable to feel confidence even in themost intimate of my kinsmen. . . .

This Emperor was insincere, crafty, hypocritical, dissembling [hiding] his anger, double-dealing, clever, a perfect artist in acting out an opinion which he pretendedto hold, and even able to produce tears, not from joy or sorrow, but . . . accordingto the need of the moment, always playing false yet not carelessly, but addingboth his signature and the most terrible oaths to bind his agreements. . . . But hedeparted straightway from his agreements and his oaths, just like the vilest slaves,who, through fear of the tortures hanging over them, are induced to make confession

of acts which they had denied on oath. He was a fickle friend, a trucelessenemy, an ardent devotee of assassination and of robbery. . . . And in addition tohis other shortcomings, while he was very easygoing as to lending an ear to slanders,yet he was severe as to inflicting punishment. . . . He never paused for athorough investigation before reaching a decision, but straightway upon hearingwhat the slanderer said, he would make his decision and order it published. Andhe did not hesitate to write orders that called for the capture of towns and theburning of cities and the enslavement of whole peoples, for no reason whatever. . . .

And after he had slain perhaps myriads for no good reason, he straightwayembarked on plans for the ruin of many more. So then, the Romans being atpeace with the whole world, and he by reason of his lust for blood not knowingwhat to do with himself, Justinian kept bringing all the barbarians into collisionwith one another. . . .

Such, then, was Justinian. As for Theodora, she had a mind fixed firmly andpersistently upon cruelty. For she never did anything at any time as the result ofpersuasion or compulsion by another person, but she herself, applying a stubbornwill, carried out her decisions with all her might, no one daring to intercede forthe victim who had given offense. . . . And to state the matter briefly, no one eversaw Theodora reconciled with one who had given offense, even after the personhad died, but the son of the deceased received the Empress’ enmity as an inheritance

from him, just as he received anything else that had been his father’s, andpassed it on to the third generation. . . .

She claimed the right to administer the whole Roman Empire. And if theEmperor should impose any task upon a man without her consent, that man’saffairs would suffer such a turn of fortune that not long thereafter he would bedismissed from his office with the greatest indignities and would die a mostshameful death.

In ancient times the Senate, as it came into the Emperor's presence, paid homage in the following manner. Any patrician saluted him on the right breast. The Emperor would kiss him on the head and then dismiss him; but all the rest first bent the right knee to the Emperor and then withdrew. However, it was not customary to salute the Empress.

But in the case of Justinian and Theodora, all … Patricians, whenever they entered into their presence, would prostrate themselves to the floor, flat on their faces, and holding their hands and feet stretched far out they would touch with their lips one foot of each before rising. For even Theodora was not disposed to forego this testimony to her dignity, she who acted as though the Roman Empire lay at her feet, but was by no means averse to receiving even the ambassadors of the Persians and of the other barbarians and to bestowing upon them presents of money, a thing which had never happened in all previous time.

And while in earlier times those who attended upon the Emperor used simply to call him "Emperor" and his consort "Empress," and used to address each one of the other magistrates in accordance with his standing at the moment, yet if anyone should enter into conversation with either one of these two and should use the words "Emperor" are "Empress" and fail to call them "Master" or "Mistress," or should undertake to use any other word but "slaves" in referring to any of the magistrates, such a person would be accounted both stupid and too free of tongue, and, as though he had erred most grievously and had treated with gross indignity those whom he should by no means have so treated, would leave the imperial presence.

And whereas in former times very few persons entered the Palace, and that too with difficulty, yet since the time when these succeeded to the throne, both magistrates and all others together remained constantly in the Palace. But these rulers, always drawing all matters into their own hands to the ruin of their subjects, compelled everybody to dance in most servile fashion.

Source: Excerpt from Secret History by Procopius, Books XIII and XV, translated

by H. B. Dewing (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1935), Volume 6.

  1. What seems to be the author’s opinion of Justinian?
  2. Is Procopius being fair to Justinian and Theodora?
  3. Is The Secret History an ancient tabloid?
  4. How does one know when a source is biased and self-serving and when it is telling the truth?
  5. What does Procopius dislike most about Theodora?