THE 18Th CENTURY, EUROPENSTATES, INTERNATIONAL WARS & SOCIAL CHANGE

THE 18th CENTURY, EUROPENSTATES, INTERNATIONAL WARS & SOCIAL CHANGE

FOCUS QUESTIONS

What were the main developments in France, Great Britain, the DutchRepublic, the Mediterranean states & the Scandinavian monarchies in the 18th century?
What do historians mean by the term “Enlightened Absolutism” & to what degree did 18th century Prussia, AustriaRussia exhibit its characteristics?
What were the causes & results of the Seven Years War?
What changes occurred in agriculture, finance & industry during the 18th century?
Who were the main groups making up the European social order in the 18th century & how did the conditions in which they lived differ b/t groups & b/t different parts of Europe?

THE EUROPEAN STATES

Most European states in the 18th century were ruled by monarchs although the justifications of the previous century for strong monarchy continued, “______” assumptions were gradually superseded by influential “utilitarian” (practical) arguments as Europe became increasingly “______”

Enlightened Absolutism

Enlightenment thought had some impact on the ______ development of European states in the 18th century
Closely related to the Enlightenment idea of “______” was the belief in “______” which were thought to be inalterable privileges that ought not to be with held from any person
These natural rights included ______ before the law, freedom of religious worship, freedom of speech & press & the right to assemble, hold property & seek happiness (American ______)

The question is “How are these natural rights to be ______”?
In the opinion of most ______, most people needed the direction provided by an enlightenment ruler
These rulers were enlightened b/c
They allowed ______ toleration, freedom of speech & press & the right to hold private property
They fostered arts, sciences & ______
They must not be arbitrary in their ______
They must obey the ______ & enforce them fairly for all ______
Many historians believed that a new monarchy emerged in the 18th century called “enlightened ______” or “enlightened absolutism”
Basically these were the rulers that followed the ______ of the philosophies & ruled by enlightened principles, establishing a path to modern ______ (Fredrick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia & Joseph II of Austria)

The Atlantic Seaboard States

As a result of overseas ______ in the 16th century, the European economic axis began to shift from the ______to the ______ seaboard
In the 17th century, the English & Dutch ______as SpainPortugal______
By the 18th century, Dutch power had waned & it was left to the English & French to build the ______ empires that created a true global ______
In the 18th century France experienced an economic revival as the Enlightenment gained strength
Louis VIV had left France with enlarged ______, an enormous debt & a 5 year old great grandson as his ______
The governing of France fell upon the Duke of ______ whose good intentions thwarted by his drunken & immoral behavior (after Louis XIV & during the reign of Louis XV)
The loss of the 7 Years War, burdensome ______, mounting public ______, hungry people & a court-life at Versailles that was frivolous & carefree forced Louis to recognize the growing disgust with his ______
Louis was succeeded by his 22 year old grandson Louis XVI who knew little about the ______of the French ______ & lacked the energy to deal decisively with state affairs
His wife “Marie ______” was a spoiled Austrian princess who continued to spend lavishly
The success of the Glorious Revolution in Englandhad prevented absolutism w/o clearly inaugurating ______ monarchy
The British political system was characterized by a sharing of power b/w the king & Parliament with Parliament gradually gaining the ______
Because the aristocracy was divided by factional struggles based on family rivalries the kings could take advantage of the divisions to win aristocratic supporters through ______, awarding them titles, government posts & positions in the ______ & household staff
After its century in the sun the Dutch Republic or United Netherlands suffered a ______ in economic prosperity
Both local & national affairs were dominate by the ______ that governed the DutchRepublic’s towns
In the 18th century the struggle continued b/t “House of Orange” (headed the executive branch of government), “______” (wanted to reduce power of the Orangists) & the “______” (artisans, merchants & shop keepers)
With foreign ______ (Prussia king sent troops) the Patriots were crushed

Absolutism In Central & Eastern Europe (Prussia, AustriaRussia)

2 able Prussian kings in the 18th century (Frederick William I) & (Frederick II) further developed the 2 major institutions (army & the bureaucracy) which were the backbone of ______
The nobility or landed aristocracy known as “______” owned large estates with many serfs still played a dominating role in the Prussian state
They held a complete ______ over the officer corps of the Prussian army which constantly expanded
By using nobles as officers Frederick William ensured a close bond b/t the ______& the ______& in turn the loyalty of the nobility to the absolute monarch (served the state)

The remaining ______ in Prussia were less important than the nobility
The ______ wee born on their lords’ estates & spent most of the rest of their lives there or in the army
They had few real ______ & even needed their Junker’s permission to ______
For the middle class the only opportunity for any social ______ was in the Prussian civil service where the ideal of loyal service to the state became a hallmark of the middle class official
______were encouraged to serve in important administrative posts
The ______ Empire had become one of the great European states by the beginning of the 18th century
The city of “______” (center of the Habsburg monarchy) was filled with magnificent palaces & churches & would become the musical capital of ______
Austria found it difficult to provide common laws & administer it’s nation of different ______, languages, religions & ______
Empress Maria Theresa (1740-1780) was ______ but forced the nobles & clergy to pay property taxes & income taxes to royal officials
Austrian & ______ lands were divided into 10 provinces & subdivided into districts administered by ______officials rather than representatives thus making part of the Austrian Empire more centralized & more bureaucratic
It ______ the power of the Habsburg state & enlarged & ______ the army
Her successor (Joseph II---her son) was more open to wider reforms & was determined to make changes & at the same time carry on is mothers goal of enhancing ______ power within the monarchy & Europe
He was an earnest man who believed in the need to “______” anything standing in the path of reason
He abolished ______ & tried to give the peasants hereditary rights to their holdings
He abandoned economic restraints by eliminating internal trade barriers & ending ______
A new penal code was put in place abrogating (repel) the death penalty & established the principle of ______ of all before the law
He introduced ______ reforms including complete religious toleration & ______ on the Catholic Church
Altogether he issued 6,000 decrees & 11,000 ______ in his effort to transform Austria
His reforms (just like these notes) overwhelmed Austria & ended up alienating the ______ by freeing the serfs & alienating the church by his attacks on the ______ establishment
Even the serfs were ______ (could not comprehend the drastic changes)
Catherine the Great ofRussia(Peter the III’s wife) was an intelligent woman who was familiar with the works of the philosophes & claimed that she swished to ______Russia along the lines of the Enlightenment ______
She was smart enough to realize that success depended upon the support of the palace ______ & the gentry class from which it stemmed (she could not afford to alienate the Russian nobility)
She was eager to pursue reform & called for ______ to debate the details of new ______ codes
She questioned serfdom, ______& capital ______ & advocated the equality of all people in the eyes of the law
In an effort to reorganize local government, she divided ______ into 50 provinces which was then subdivided into districts whose ruling officials were chosen by the nobles (sound familiar???)
Basically the local ______ became responsible for the day to day governing of Russia
Her favoring of nobility led to even worse ______ for the Russian peasantry
Catherine proved a worthy successor to Peter the Great by expanding Russia’s ______ westward into Poland & southward to the ______ Sea, they earned the right to sail in Turkish waters by defeating the Turks & expanded westward by taking ______

The Mediterranean World

At the beginning of the 18th century, Spain experienced a change of dynasties from the Habsburgs to the ______whose rule temporarily rejuvenated Spain & at least provided an opportunity to centralize the state ______
Under “Philip V” (1700-1746) the laws, administrative institutions & language of ______ were established in the other Spanish kingdoms making the king of Castile truly the king of Spain
Since the Treaty of ______ in 1713 had taken the Italian territories & the Netherlands away from Spain there were fewer administrative problems & less drain on their already overtaxed resources

______ had experienced decline since the 26th century but Marquis of Pombal (1699-1782) curtailed the nobility & the Catholic Church & temporarily revived the empire until his death (nobility & church regained power)
After the Treaty of Utrecht, ______had replaced ______as the dominant force in Italy in the 18th century
Milan, Sardinia & Naples were given to the northern Italian state of Savoy until 1734 when the Bourbons of Spain reestablished control over ______

The Scandinavian States

In the 17th century, ______ had become the dominant power in northern Europe but after the Battle of Poltava in 1709 Swedish power declined rapidly
______ also saw an attempt at enlightened reforms by “King Christian VII” (1766-1808) but his efforts were opposed & led to his death in

Enlightened Absolutism Revisited

Of the 3 major rulers traditionally associated most closely with enlightened absolutism (Joseph II, Frederick II & Catherine the Great) only ______sought truly radical changes based on Enlightenment ideas
All 3 were guided by a concern for the power & well being of their states as this heightened state power was used to amass ______ & wage wars to gain more ______
Enlightenment practices did take place as law was reformed, religious toleration & the extension of ______ served to create more satisfied subjects & ______ the state

WARS & DIPLOMACY

The philosophes ______ war as a foolish waste of life & resources in stupid quarrels of no value to ______
By the 18th century, the European system of self-governing, individual states was grounded in the principle of self-interest as international relations were based on considerations of ______
“Balance of Power” was predicted on how to ______ the power of one state by another to prevent any one state from ______ the others
The diplomacy of the 18th century focused primarily on dynastic ______or the desire of ruling families to provide for their ______ & extend their holdings
War was considered a rational means to achieve specific goals & leaders justified war on the basis of national ______
The major nation-states of Europe fought wars regularly in order to gain new ______ protect existing trade routes or ______
The 5 major ______ of Europe included: Great Britain, France, Austria, PrussiaRussia

War Of The Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

Unable to produce a male heir to the Austrian throne, the Habsburg emperor ______(1711-1740) so feared the consequences of the succession of his daughter Maria Theresa that he spent much of his reign negotiating the “______Sanction” by which different European powers agreed to recognize his daughter as his legal heir
After Charles’s death the Pragmatic Sanction was pushed aside by ______of Prussia, on Dec. 16, 1740, when Frederick II of Prussia invaded Silesia, one of the richest Habsburg provinces
The vulnerability of Maria Theresa encouraged France to enter the war against its traditional enemy Austria & in turn Maria Theresa made an ______ with Great Britain who feared French hegemony (dominance)
By 1748 all parties were exhausted & agreed to stop when the “Treaty of ______” ended the fighting in Europe
The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle promised the return of all occupied ______except ______ to their original owners
Prussia’s ______ to return Silesia guaranteed another war between PrussiaAustria

The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)

Maria Theresa refused to accept the loss of Silesia & prepared for its return by ______ her army while working diplomatically through her foreign minister (Count Wenzel von Kunitz) to ______Prussia from its chief ally, ______
France would abandon Prussia & allied itself with Austria______ which saw Prussia as a major hindrance to Russian goals in central Europe joined the new alliance---in return Great Britain allied with Prussia
France, AustriaRussia
PrussiaGreat Britain
The Seven Years War was the first ______ conflict & had 3 major areas of conflict---Conflict in Europe, War in India & The French & ______ War
______ would become established as the greatest colonial power w/ control over India & North America
______ emerged as the greatest power on the Continent & the dominant force inside Germany, reducing still further the power of the Holy Roman Empire & Habsburg Austria
Frederick II of Prussia (The Great) emerges as the most remarkable ______ of the war
Prussia was the smallest of the main combatants & yet Frederick survived year after year of campaigning, & despite coming near to defeat he emerged ______
The French lost their influence in ______& they became territories of Great Britain

The Partition Of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795)

The Partition of Poland was 3 territorial ______ of Poland perpetrated by Russia, PrussiaAustria
Poland’s size was progressively reduced until, after the final partition, the state of Poland ceased to ______
The First Partition occurred after Russia became involved in a war against the ______ Turks (1768)
They won impressive victories, particularly in the Danubian principalities & Austria became alarmed & ______ to enter the war against ______
______ (the Great) of Prussia, in order to avoid an escalation of the Russo-Turkish War, determined to calm Austro-Russian relations by shifting the direction of Russia’s expansion from the Turkish provinces to ______
Poland not only had a structurally weak government but also, since 1768, had been devastated by a civil war & by Russian intervention & incapable of resisting territorial ______
On August 5, 1772, Russia, PrussiaAustria signed a treaty that ______Poland
The agreement deprived Poland of approximately ______of its population & almost one-thirdof its land area
______ received all the Polish territory east of the line formed roughly by the Dvina & Dnieper rivers
______ gained the economically valuable province of Royal Prussia, excluding the cities of Gdańsk (Danzig) & Toruń & also gained the northern portion of the region of Great Poland (Wielkopolska)
______ acquired the regions of Little Poland (Małopolska) south of the Vistula River, western Podolia, & the area that subsequently became known as Galicia

Almost ______years later Poland, which had made efforts to strengthen itself through internal reforms as they adopted a new, liberal constitution (May 3, 1791)
That action resulted in the formation of the conservative Confederation of ______ (May 14, 1792) which asked Russia to intervene to restore the former Polish ______
Not only did Russia accept the confederates’ invitation but Prussia also sent troops into Poland & on January 23, 1793, the two powers agreed upon the ______ Partition of Poland
Confirmed in August & September 1793—surrounded by Russian troops—the Second Partition transferred to ______ the major remnant of Lithuanian Belorussia & the western Ukraine including Podolia & part of Volhynia & allowed ______ to absorb the cities of Gdańsk & Toruń as well as Great Poland & part of Mazovia
In response to the Second Partition the Polish officer Tadeusz Kościuszko led a national ______ (March–November 1794)
Russia & Prussia intervened to suppress the ______ & on October 24, 1795 they concluded an agreement with Austria that divided the remnants of Poland b/t themselves
By the Third Partition of Poland, which was not finally settled until January 26, 1797, ______incorporated Courland, all Lithuanian territory east of the Neman (Nieman) River & the rest of the Volhynian Ukraine
______ acquired the remainder of Mazovia, including Warsaw & a section of Lithuania west of the Neman
______took the remaining section of Little Poland, from Kraków northeastward to the arc of the NorthernBugRiver
Those territorial ______ were altered in 1807 when the emperor Napoleon of France created the duchy of Warsaw out of the central provinces of Prussian Poland & in 1815 when the Congress of ______ created the Congress Kingdom of Poland
However, the main result of the partitions was the elimination of the sovereign state of Poland which was in effect until after ______, when the Polish republic was finally restored (November 11, 1918)

ECONOMIC EXPANSION & SOCIAL CHANGE

The depressed ______ conditions of the 17th century began to improve in the early 18th century as rapid population growth, expansion in banking & trade, the beginnings of ______ & an increase in world wide trade characterized the economic patterns of the 18th century

Growth Of The European Population

Europe’s ______ began to grow around 1750 & experienced a slow but steady rise (120 million in 1700 to 190 million in 1790) creating serious ______
The most important cause of the population growth rate was a decline in the ______ rate due to more plentiful food & better transportation of food supplies which led to improved diets & less ______
There was also an end to the ______ plague but diseases like typhus, smallpox, influenza & dysentery were still rampant b/c ______ conditions remained poor (no trash pickup, little bathing, dirty clothes no system to eliminate human waste)

Family, Marriage & Birthrate Patterns

The ______rather than the individual was still the heart of Europe’s social organization & most people still thought of the family in traditional terms (patriarchal w/husband dominating his wife & children)
Parents (fathers) still selected ______ partners for their children based on the interest of the family ($$$ or land was more important than happiness)
At the beginning of the 18th century traditional attitudes prevailed in ______ care
Lower class women ______for best nutritional values & also served as wet nurses (breast feeders) for aristocratic & upper middle ______ (it was undignified to them)
In the 2nd half of the 18th century, traditional ______ began to change especially in Western Europe as the impact of Enlightenment thought & increasing survival rates of infants led to new attitudes toward ______
Shops for children’s clothes appeared, appeals for women to breast-feed their own children followed & “______” (treating the 1st kid as the favorite) came under attack---all children deserve their parents attention
In England, games & toys for children now appeared, the jigsaw puzzle was invented & books aimed to please as well as ______ children
The changes were limited mostly to upper classes & not peasants as they sometimes resorted to “______” (killing the child) or abandonment due to ______ crisis
Infanticide was now punishable by death but it remained a solution to the problem of too many children
Children were now “______” suffocated in their parents bed & unwanted children were now being placed in hospitals or founding homes
In most of Europe, newly married couples established their own ______ independent of their parents as the “______” (parents & independent children) family became more popular
Late marriages (old) imposed limits on the ______ (natural birth control) but it was offset by the number of babies born out of ______
5 births per family was the norm which caused a significant ______ in the population
______ of both women & children were crucial to the family economy as both helped in the handicraft manufacturing in the home or were sent out to work as ______ servants
In ______areas, children worked on the land, married women grew vegetables in small plots, tended livestock & sold eggs, vegetables & milk
Bad harvests or a downturn in employment in cities often reduced people to poverty & a life of ______

An Agricultural Revolution