2.3 Water stress
1. draft
Prepared by:
Peter Kristensen
National Environmental Research Institute/
European Topic Centre on Water
Niels Thyssen
European Environment Agency
24 August,2006
Project manager:
Niels Thyssen
European Environment Agency
Contents
2.3.1 Key messages
2.3.2 Water resources and use
2.3.3 Drinking water problems
2.3.4 Climate impacts on water
2.3.5 Droughts and floods
Droughts
Floods
2.3.6 Pollution and water quality
References
2.3.1 Key messages
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In manyEECCA and western Balkan countries there has been a significant decline in the level of water quality monitoring over the last 15 years. This and difficulties encountered to gather up-to-date information have made it very difficult to obtain a clear picture of the status and trend in water resources.
Overall, the region abstracts a relatively small portion (7 %) of its total renewable water resource each year. Eleven countries in the region can be considered water-stressed (Germany, England and Wales, Italy, Malta, Azerbaijan, Spain, Belgium, Bulgaria, Turkmenistan, Cyprus and Uzbekistan), representing a third of the region’s population. The situation is worst in the latter three.
Total water abstraction in the region has decreased by more than 20 % during the last 15 years. The decrease was fastest from 1991 to 1997. Most of the decrease occurred in the EECCA countries and the new EU Member States, as a result of the decline in abstraction in most economic sectors. Since the late 1990s the annual water uses by agriculture, energy cooling and industry have remained nearly constant.
In several countries increased water prices decreased household water use significantly. In many eastern European countries and EECCA countries, water prices were heavily subsidised before 1990, but there was a marked increase in prices during transition, resulting in lower water use.
Nowadays, most Europeans take clean drinking water for granted. Yet, in parts of Europe some persons do not have access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation, making them vulnerable to water-related diseases. The WHO estimates for the European region that unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene result annually in 18000 premature deaths, 736 000 disability-adjusted life years (DALY’s) and the loss of 1.18 million years of life.
Generally, the population in western Europe has continuous access to drinking water of good quality. On the contrary, in the EECCA and Balkan countries supply is often intermittent and of poor quality.
Coverage with centralised water supply and sanitation services in urban areas of EECCA and SEE is generally at high levels. High connection rates in most urban areas, however, mask the fact that the quality of water supply and sanitation services that is being deliveredhas continuously deteriorated over the last 15 years.
Both in the EECCA and the SEE countries many users now receive water for less than 24 hours per day. The daily switching on and off of the network allows pollutants to contaminate the network, and increases the wear of the infrastructure. Leaks allow for cross contamination between water and sanitation networks.
Leakage losses from distribution network are high in many countries (EECCA, SEE and southern Europe). It is not unusual that more than one third of the supplied water is lost before delivery.
Climate change scenarios predict that northern and eastern Europe would see an increase in annual average river flow and water availability. In contrast, average run-off in southern European rivers is projected to decrease with increasing temperature and decreasing precipitation. In particular, some river basins in the Mediterranean and southern EECCA region, which already face water stress, may see marked decreases of water availability.
Recent severe and prolonged droughts such as in central Asia in 2000/2001, the 2003 heat wave and at the Iberian Peninsula in 2004/05 have highlighted Europe's vulnerability to droughts. The latest climate change scenarios suggest significant summer drying across many parts of Europe, in particular in the southern part.
During the last five years several severe floods have hit the region such as the catastrophic floods along the Danube and Elbe rivers in summer 2002, in northern Caucasus July and August 2002, in the Alps in summer 2005 and along the Danube in the spring 2006.Since 2002 floods in Europe have caused more than ?00 deaths, the displacement of about half a million people and at least €25 billion in insured economic losses(values to be updated).In addition to weather conditions unwise river basin management plays a significant role for the occurrence of floods.
Generally, most of the urban population in the region is connected to sewers. Despite the rather high connection rate the wastewater in some EECCA and Balkan countries is not treated but discharged directly to receiving waters, either because there is no wastewater treatment plant, or due to poor functioning of existing plants.
Some large rivers such as Kura, Syr Darya and Volga are heavily polluted. In many other large rivers, pollution hotspots are found downstream of large cities due to discharge of insufficient treated wastewater. Other hotspots are caused by heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Cd) from mining and the leather industry, and ammonia and nitrates from the fertiliser industry. Concentrations exceed norms several times. Phenols exceed the norms six times and mineral oil, two to three times. Pesticides, especially organochlorine pesticides such as DDT, also constitute a problem. DDT is no longer used and the source of this pollution has not been fully investigated; it may be old stock or illegally produced or imported products.The pollution of many small water courses is still severe, with water quality classes being „moderately polluted” or „intensely polluted”.
Due to the collapse of many industries and reduced agricultural activities in the early 1990s, pollution has decreased considerably. However, the reduction was not from the introduction of pollution control technologies such as improved wastewater treatment. A number of polluting activities, however, still exist, notably mining, metallurgical and chemical industries. The analysis of the scarce data available shows that an improvement of water quality in rivers in recent years.
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2.3.2 Water resources and use
Water availability
Both water and population are unevenly distributed in Europe and Eurasia (hereafter called the region), therefore countries and sub-regions are experiencing differing degrees of water stress. Precipitation is highest in the north-western part of Europe and in mountainous areas such as the Alps and the PamirMountains.
The Mediterranean islands Malta and Cyprus, the densely populated central European countries and some of the downstream Central Asian countries have the least available water per capita (Figure LTAA_Capita).
Figure LTAA_Capita: Available water resource per capita. (Long-Term Annual Average Net precipitation + external in-flow divided by population (2003))
Source: Eurostat and UNSTAT and 2003 population EEA data service) (spreadsheet LTAA_GRAPH.xls)
Overall, the region abstracts a relatively small portion of its total renewable water resourceseach year. Total water abstraction in theregion is about 524 km3/year, or only 7 % ofthe (LTAA) available freshwater resource of 7400 km3[1].
Water stressed countries are often identified in terms of the water exploitation index (WEI) which is the total water abstraction divided by the long-term available annual resource (see figure WEI).The warning threshold for WEI which distinguishes a non-stressed from a stressed region, is around 20 %. Severe water stress can occur where the WEI exceeds 40 %, indicating unsustainable water use.
Figure WEI: Water exploitation index. Total water abstraction per year as percentage of long-term freshwater resources in 1990 and 2002Source: CSI18, and UNSTAT questionnaire data. – Update with Balkan countries.
Eleven countries in the regioncan be considered water-stressed (Germany, England and Wales, Italy, Malta, Azerbaijan, Spain,Belgium, Bulgaria, Turkmenistan, CyprusandUzbekistan), representing a third of the region’s population. Only in Turkmenistan, CyprusandUzbekistan the WEI exceeds 40 %. Most of the countries with high WEI have a high abstraction for irrigated agriculture, while some countries have high water abstraction for non-consumptive uses (cooling water) as in Germany, England and Wales, Bulgaria and Belgium.
The total water abstraction decreased in 28out of 37countries during the period 1990 to 2002. In many countries WEI was markedly reduced. Most of the decrease occurred in the EECCA countries and thenew EU Member States, as a result of the decline in abstraction in most economic sectors. This trend was the result of institutional and economic changes. However, six countries (The Netherlands, UK, Greece, Portugal, Turkey and Turkmenistan) increased their WEI in the same period due to an increase in total water abstraction. In three countries the WEI remained the same from 1990 to 2002.
Trends in water abstraction
Total water abstraction in the region (sum of the fivesub-regions) has deceased by more than 20% during the last 15 years (Figure TOTABS). The decrease was fastest from 1991 to 1997.
The percentage reduction in water abstraction was largest (35 to 40%) in the EECCA, new EU Member States and accession countries. In the northern and central EEA countries the reduction was only 15 %. On the contrary, in southern European countries water abstraction increased by more than 15 %, in particular due to an increased water abstraction in Turkey.Water abstraction in the Western Balkans is low compared to the other regions and was nearly constant during the last 15 years.
Figure TOTABS: Change in total water abstraction in the period 1990-2004 (EEA data only up to 2002) –Source: CSI18 and UNSTAT - TOTABS.xls
Note: EECCA(not including Uzbekistan 50-70 million m3); EEA northern andCentral: (DE, DE, FR, BL, AT, FI, SE, CH, E and W) – Missing: BE, IS, NO, LU; EU new andAC: (CZ, EE, LV, LT, HU, PL, SL, SK, BG, RO) EU southern and Turkey: (ES, GR, PT, TU)- Missing: IT, MT, CY;Western Balkans:HR, FYROM, and Serbia-Montenegro Missing: Albania, Bosnia-Hergovenia.
Water use by sectors
All economic sectors need water for their development. Agriculture, industry and most forms of energy production are not possible without water. On average, 44 % of total water abstractionin the region is used for agriculture, 40 % forindustry and forenergy production(cooling in power plants), and 15 % for public water supply.
In the EECCA countries agriculture and industry and energy production are the dominating water uses while public needs account for less than 15 %. During the 1990s water use for irrigation and industry including energy cooling were reduced by more than 40 % (Figure EECCA_SECTOR). Since the mid-1990s and 2000 the annual water uses by the two economic sectors have remained constant.In the mid-1990s there was a 20 % reduction in water use for public needs (households and service sector). After 2001 the water use for public needs has been constant.
Figure EECCA_SECTOR: Trend in water use by sectors in the EECCA countries, 1985 to 2004.Note: No trend information on water use for Uzbekistan approximately 58 million m3 to be added (more than 90 % used for irrigation). Source: CISSTAT and UNSTAT
In north-western Europe (NWE) andsouth-eastern Europe (SEE) irrigation and energy cooling account for around one third of the water abstraction each, while public water supply and the manufacturing industry account for 18 % and 12 % of water abstraction, respectively.
Water abstracted for cooling in energy production is considered a non-consumptive use. Countries with large inland power plants are generally the largest users of water for cooling. Many of the NWE countries use more than half of the abstracted water for this purpose.During the period from 1990 to 2002 there has been a minor reduction in the water use for energy cooling due to the use of more efficient cooling technologies.
From 1990 to 2002 water abstraction for manufacturing decreased by more than 40 % in the NWE and SEE countries. The decrease was highest in the newMemberStatesand Bulgaria and Romania with a 75 % reduction, while the reduction in the old EU Member States was around 25 %.
Figure SECTOR_NWE_SEE: Trend in water abstraction for sectors in the north-western Europe (NWE) & south-eastern Europe (SEE) countries.
Note: Energy cooling: CZ, EE, HU, PL, BG, RO, DE, ES, FR, NL, AT, FI, E and W; Industry: CZ, LV, HU, PL, SI, SK, BG, Ro, DK, ES, FR, NL, AT, FI, SE, E&W, DE; Public Water Supply: CZ, HU, PL, SI, SK, BG, RO; BE, DK, DE, ES, FR, NL, AT, FI, SE, UK, IS, NO, CH.
There has been a decreasing trend in water use for public water supply. This trend is more pronounced in new MemberStates and Bulgaria and Romania with a 30 % reduction during the 1990s. In these countries, the new economic conditions led to water supply companies increasing the price of water and installing water meters in houses. This resulted in people using less water. Industries connected to the public systems also reduced their industrial production and hence water use. Nevertheless in most countries the supply network is obsolete and losses in distribution systems require high abstraction volumes to maintain supply (see section 2.3.3).
Water use for irrigation
In arid regions such as the Mediterranean, southern EECCA and Turkey, irrigation accounts for over 60 % of water use. While in the more humid and temperate countries irrigation is carried out mainly as a complement to natural rainfall and its share of total water use varies from almost zero in a few countries to generally less than 10 % in others (further information on irrigation can be found in section 7.3.1 Agriculture).
Figure: Water use for irrigation in European regions – diagram may be updated to 2004(during autumn 2006).
From 1990 to 2002 agricultural water use was constant and high in the western southern countries. The decrease of agricultural activities in EECCA and Central and eastern European countries during the transition process led to marked decreases in water abstracted for agricultural use. In contrast there has been a recent 35 % increase in irrigation water demand in Turkey because of new irrigation projects, the most important being the Southeastern Anatolia Project or GAP aiming to develop an area of more than 7 million ha within the basins of the Dicle (Tigris) and Firat (Euphrates) for irrigation.
Impacts due to water abstraction
Water availability problems occur when the demand for water exceeds the amount available during a certain period. They occur frequently in areas with low rainfall and high population density, and in areas with intensive agricultural or industrial activity. Apart from causing problems providing water to users, over-exploitation of water has led to the drying-out of water courses and wetland areas in Europe, and to salt-water intrusion in aquifers.Thus large areas of the Mediterranean coastline are affected by saltwater intrusion (EEA, 2003).
The overall environmental impact of irrigation depends on local water availability and other water uses and on the particular characteristics of the irrigation practices used. Irrigation can affect the environment through impacts upon water quantity (e.g. lowering groundwater table and affecting river flow) and on water quality by increased content of salts and pollutants; and impacts upon soil, biodiversity and landscapes.
Irrigation is the main cause of groundwater overexploitation in agricultural areas. Examples include the Greek Argolid plain of eastern Peloponnesus, where it is common to find boreholes 400m deep contaminated by sea-water intrusion. In Italy overexploitation of the Po River in the region of the Milan aquifer has led to 25 m (even up to 40 m) decrease of ground water levels over the last 80 years (Blue Plan, 2005). In Spain, more than half of the abstracted groundwater volume is obtained from units facing overexploitationproblems (MIMAM, 2000).
In Central Asiagroundwater levels have changed significantly as a resultof abstraction for anthropogenic activities. Declining water levels in theregion’s rivers and the Aral Sea have affected their ability to recharge groundwater supplies, resulting in a lowering of the water table by upto 50 cm per year on non-irrigated territories and in some regions byas much as 10-15 m.On irrigated land, however, the groundwater levels have risen withconsequential flooding of populated centres. For example, groundwaterlevels have increased by up to 1.5 m in 70% and over 50% of the totalarea of Khorezm oblast and in the lower reaches of the ZeravshanRiver, respectively.(Source: GIWA, 2005 Caspian Sea)
Policies to promote sustainable water use
Many policies have been implemented aiming at reducing water use and more efficient use of water resources. Most countries have water resource management plans that both look on the supply and demand side and the countries generally base their water policies on the “full cost recovery” principle. In the EU the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) is based on the idea that modern water management needs to take account of ecological, economic (including pricing) and social functions throughout the entire river basin. The WFD aims at a more integrated approach to water management including
- Management of water quantity and quality at watershed or river basin level,
- Greater consideration of interactions between urban and rural activities and water quality, and
- Greater recognition of the need for rivers and lakes (and their beds and banks) to support aquatic life, as well as to meet human health and recreation criteria.
The EECCA environment strategy has actions on development and implementation of integrated water management programmes based on river basin principles.
Regulatory framework and water pricing
Many countries are working on new regulations and are setting new and higher standards for eco-efficient water appliances (toilets, washing machines, etc).
Water pricing is an example of one of the measures used to reduce water demand. The water framework directive requires Member States to ensure by 2010,that the proportion of the cost of water services – such as pumping, weirs, dams, channels, supply systems – with a negative impact on the environment – must be paid by the users (e.g. agriculture, hydropower, households, navigation). Member States are required to split the costs according to the polluter pays principle in order to reduce the impact on the environment and to promote economic instruments to tackle the decline of natural resources. If Member States fail to include other infrastructures than drinking water supply and wastewater treatment in their economic analysis there is a big risk that such infrastructures already identified as creating major environmental problems will be exempted and the economic burden to reach good status of water bodies by 2015 will be left with citizens already paying high prices for water services.