Here’s an example of in-text citations, using APA format, from my PH.D. thesis.
Team Outcomes: Effectiveness
“There is no commonly accepted meaning of work-group effectivness” (Goodman, Ravlin, & Schminke, 1987, p. 136). Numerous criteria have been used as indicators of group effectiveness, both in theoretical models of work groups and in the design and implementation of team interventions.
Models of work groups include relatively global, multidimensional indicators of effectiveness. In 1964, McGrath stated that group process resulted in three different kinds of effects: task performance, group development and effects on members. This three dimensional view has been further refined by Hackman (1987) and seems to be accepted by organizations (Leimbach, 1992). In Hackman’s model, team effectiveness can be measured at three levels of analysis: organizational, team and individual.
At the organizational level, the primary issue is whether the task output, the product or service delivered by the team, is acceptable to those who receive it or review it. Typical criteria include the quantity and quality of the output, time, errors, cost and productivity (Leimbach, 1992; Tannenbaum, Beard, & Salas, 1992). According to one survey (Leimbach, 1992) task performance was the primary criterion, used by 84% of responding organizations, to judge if a team was effective.
At the team level, the primary issue is if the team has developed the systems, processes, and relationships to continue to collaborate effectively. Changes in team cohesiveness, norms, roles, problem-solving and decision-making were frequently considered (Leimbach, 1992; Sundstrom, DeMeuse, & Futrell,1990; Tannenbaum, et. al., 1992). Fifty-three percent of survey respondents considered team process variables (Leimbach, 1992).
And at an individual level, the concern is the degree to which individual members’ needs are more satisfied than frustrated by the team experience. In addition, changes in team member skills and attitudes might be assessed (Leimbach, 1992; Tannenbaum, et.al., 1992). In the workplace, 41% of survey respondents used team member satisfaction as an effectiveness measure (Leimbach, 1992).
Excerpted from: Gobeli, C.L. (1995). Critical design factors for effective teamwork training in the workplace A survey of training professionals in Oregon. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, OregonStateUniversity, Corvallis, Oregon.
REFERENCES
Goodman, P.S., Ravlin, E., & Schminke, M. (1987). Understanding groups in organizations. In L.L. Cummings & B. Staw (Eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol 9 (pp. 121-173). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Hackman J.R. (1987). The design of work teams, In J.W. Lorsch (Ed.), Handbook of Organizational Behavior (pp. 315-342). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
McGrath, J.E. (1964). Social psychology: A brief introduction. New York: Holt Rinehart.
Leimbach, M.P. (1992) Meeting the collaborative challenge: A study of supports and barriers to team effectiveness.Eden Prairie, MN: Wilson Learning Corporation.
Tannenbaum, S.I., Beard, R.L., & Salas, E. (1992). Team building and its influence on team effectiveness: An examination of conceptual and empirical developments. In K. Kelley (Ed.), Issues, Theory and Research in Industrial/Organizational Psychology. (pp. 117-153).