Slide #21 CAREER DEVELOPMENT MODELS
Joe Ray Underwood
COE 8203
Slide #2 What’s in a name?
Vocation, occupation, and Job: Activities and positions of employment
Work: Conscientious, purposeful activity to produce a product
Career: Activities & positions involved in vocations, occupations, and jobs as well as activities associated with an individual’s lifetime of work
Slide #3 What is Career Development?
The American Counseling Association defines Career Development as:the total constellation of psychological, sociological, educational, physical, economic, and chance factors that combine to influence the nature and significance of work in the total life span of any given individual.
Slide #4 What is Career Development?
The National Career Development Associations defines it as: The roles played throughout life related to work, learning, leisure, and family.
Slide #5 Another Career Development Definition
“…the interaction of psychological, sociological, economic, physical, and chance factors that shape the sequence of jobs, occupations or careers that a person may engage in throughout a lifetime. Career Development is a major aspect of human development. It includes one’s entire life- span and concerns the whole person. Career development involves a person’s self-concept, family life, and all aspects of one’s environmental and cultural conditions.”
Slide #6
Career development, occupational development and vocational development are sometimes used interchangeably.
Lifelong process of developing: Beliefs and values, Skills and aptitude, Interests, personality characteristics, and Knowledge of the world of work.
Slide #7
Most recently career development has been defined as the roles one plays across a life span.
Not only one’s work, but also one’s leisure, learning and family are considered, by some, to be part of one’s career development.
Slide #8 ACTIVITY
Brainstorm a definition of the word role: “What is a role?”
Share personal examples of roles you have played with other students. (Example: the role of friend, student, parent, and worker.)
List your current roles, past roles, and role you would like to have in the future.
Discuss how change affects the roles you have had in your life.
Tell what you have learned about yourself from sharing.
Slide #9 What is Theory?
A theory is a system of general concepts that provides a framework for organizing and interpreting observations.
Theories help us to identify the orderly relationships that exist among many and diverse events.
Counseling theories are conceptual frameworks for describing or understanding complex human developmental processes.
Theories describe, explain, generalize, and summarize what we do in counseling to help clients make constructive changes that lead to success and satisfaction
Slide #10 Career Development Theory Overview
Provide a set of assumptions about vocational development;
Help us understand the process and offer a framework in which to organize activities that will facilitate insight and growth within the client;
Give us a foundation for organizing information about the client to use in formulating appropriate goals.
Slide #11 In summary, career development theory helps to:
Make sense of what we experience and learn;
Bridge gaps between knowledge and the unknown;
Summarize information;
Explain information;
Make predictions;
Point out relations between means and ends;
Formulate goals; and,
Guide research in order to improve the knowledge and skill bases for career facilitation.
Slide #12 Theories aid in our understanding of career development.
Following are three groups of career development theory
1. Theories of Occupational Choice;
2.Theories of Career Development;
3.Theories of Decision Making.
Slide #13 Theories of Occupational Choice.
Slide #14 The Trait and FactorTheory of Frank Parsons.
Traits by definition (in this theory) mean abilities that are unique to the individual, or skills that are work-related.
Factors (in this theory) are the job descriptions and requirements for those jobs.
The theory simply matches measurable traits with actual job descriptions.
Slide #15 Parsons proposed that the choices of an occupation depend upon:
An accurate knowledge of oneself:
Thorough knowledge of job specifications;
The ability to make a proper match between the two.
Slide #16 The two major assumptions of trait and factor theory are:
That there is a single career goal for everyone
That career decisions are primarily based on measured abilities
Individuals and job traits can be matched
Close matches are positively correlated with job success and satisfaction
Slide #17 Williamson’s Extension of Trait and Factor theory
Analysis: data gathering stage
Synthesis: strengths/weaknesses
Diagnosis: identify the problem; discover its causes
Prognosis: how successful will client be?
Counseling: if poor prognosis, then client receives additional counseling, which is likely to involve a recycling through the previous steps
Follow-up: was course of action correct?
Slide #18 Four Problems (a la Williamson)
Uncertainty
No Choice
Discrepancy between interests & skills
Unwise choice:
Substantial evidence that person will be unsuccessful or
Complete absence of evidence that person will be successful
Slide #19 Other Indicators of Unwise Choice
Aptitudes don’t match goals
Goals don’t match interests
Personality traits make job adjustment difficult
Occupation choice that offers little opportunity for entry
Desire for prestige
Based on promises from friends/relatives
Pressures from others
Lack of occupational information
Misconception about careers
Slide #20 Person-Environment Correspondence theory of Davis and Lofquist
Work personality and work environment should be amenable
Individual needs are most important in determining an individual’s fit into work
Individual needs & the reinforcer system that characterizes the work setting are important aspects of stability and tenure
Job placement is best accomplished through a match of worker traits with the requirements of a work environment
Slide #21 Work Adjustment and Job Satisfaction
Job Satisfaction: Co-workers/supervisors, type of work, autonomy, responsibility, opportunities for self-expression of abilities, serving others
Part of work adjustment (also includes ability to perform the work tasks)
Predictor of job tenure
Needs and values important components
Individuals differ significantly to job reinforcers
Note available reinforcement; compare to need
Slide #22 The Personalities and Environments Choice theory of John Holland.
Holland suggests that people can function and develop best and find job satisfaction in work environments that are compatible with their personalities.
Slide #23 Holland based his theory of personality types on several assumptions.
People tend to choose a career that is reflective of their personality
Because they tend to be attracted to certain jobs, the environment then reflects this personality.
Slide #24 Holland classified personality types and work environments into six types that he labeled:
Realistic;
Investigative;
Artistic;
Social;
Enterprising;
Conventional.
Often referred to by the acronym RIASEC.
Holland suggests that the closer the match of personality to job, the greater the satisfaction.
Slide #25 All personality types are part of each of us. However, 1 type is usually evidenced most strongly. We may even resemble up to 3 of the types.
Consistency: Types that have a lot in common (adjoining codes)
Differentiation: high identification with a type; Undifferentiated: identify with several types
Identity: Clear & stable picture of goals, tasks, and rewards
Congruence: personality type matches work environment
Slide #26 Holland’s theory is summarized in seven principal elements:
1. Most people can be characterized as one of these six personality types: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, or Conventional.
2. There are six kinds of working environments: Realistic (R), Investigative (I), Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E), and Conventional (C). A given type of personality dominates each environment.
3. People search for environments that will let them exercise skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles.
4. A person’s behavior is determined by an interaction between his or her personality and the characteristics of the work environment.
Slide #27 Holland Theory (continued)
5. The degree of congruence between a person and an occupational environment can be estimated by using a hexagonal mode.
6. The degree of consistency within a person or environment is also defined using the hexagonal model. Adjacent types on the hexagon are the most consistent.
7. Some persons or environments are more clearly defined than others.
Slide #28 The Life/work Planning “Total Person” choice theory of Richard Bolles.
According to Bolles, career theories by their very nature explore in depth and tend to focus on narrow issues;
They play an important role in understanding human nature;
However, it is equally important to view the whole picture as the sum of its parts;
Aside from theory, some career programs (systems) are based on philosophy.
Slide #29 Richard Nelson Bolles’ life/work planning is a holistic model.
Holistic process, evolved and expanding over the last twenty-five;
It encompasses the “total person,” taking into consideration physical, intellectual, mental, emotional, and spiritual needs.
In What Color Is Your Parachute? Bolles writes about the importance of knowing your mission, finding purpose in life.
Addresses how various life roles fit into the bigger life/work picture.
Need to challenge all assumptions, paying careful attention on two levels - the human level and the spiritual level. .
In essence, there is both the trait and factor approach and the developmental schema in the Bolles’ process.
Slide #30 Theories of Career Development.
Slide #31 The Motivation and Personality theory of career development of Abraham Maslow.
Developed a theory based on a hierarchy of needs;
Needs are necessary for maintaining life;
Lower order needs are the strongest needs and until they are satisfied they take precedence over higher needs.
Slide #32 Maslow states that needs are arranged in hierarchical order.
These needs, from the lowest to the highest, are:
Physiological.
Safety.
Belongingness and love.
Feeling importance, respect, esteem, independence.
Self-actualization.
Note: The need for beauty, information and understanding are collapsed into the need for self-actualization.
Slide #33The motivation to work.
Understanding Abraham Maslow’s theory is useful when helping a person to find a job;
Hierarchy merely means to rank in order;
Maslow ranked what we actually need from basic survival to a peak level of achievement.
Slide #34 The five levels of need in Maslow’s Theory of Hierarchy are:
1. Survival: Food, water, and shelter – these are basics, needed to sustain life.
2.Safety: Secure environment – our second basic need.
3.Social: Acceptance by peers through relationships – which helps with self-esteem.
4. Self-worth: Value for who you are and what you can contribute.
5. Self-actualization: Thorough knowledge of your abilities and potential.
Slide #35 Maslow - work motivation comes from a desire to fulfill various levels of need in life that are both mental and physical.
You may be able to help clients by getting them to describe a relationship between their needs and how a job supports those needs.
Part of our personal make-up comes from our work and its rewards.
The more we know about ourselves, the higher we strive to move up to the need areas in each of Maslow’s levels.
Many career theorists have considered Maslow's theory in development of their own theories; chief among them is Ann Roe.
Slide #36 The developmental theory of Anne Row: A Needs Approach
Occupational history yields essence of the person
Situational relevancy begins with birth and continues throughout life
Vocational decisions & behavioral decisions essentially the same
Extent of voluntary decisions often more than it appears
Slide #37 Anne Row: A Needs Approach (continued)
Occupational life affects all of life
Appropriate & satisfying vocation promotes mental health; inappropriate ones can promote mental sadness
The good life would be best served by promoting good vocational situations
No single specific occupational slot
Slide #38 Roe’s Legacy
Two-way occupational classification system
Kuder, COPS (career interest inventories)
Occupational clusters (groups)
Educational and vocational decisions are both important
Slide #39 The developmental theory of Ginzbery and associates
Ginzberg & associates were first team to use developmental approach (economist, psychiatrist, sociologist, and psychologist)
Stages of development
Early directions important (possibly irreversible)
Slide #40 Ginzberg Stages or Periods
Fantasy: Childhood (before 11)
Play evolves to work oriented preferences
Tentative: Early adolescence (11-17)
Interest-definite likes & dislikes
Capacity-aware of abilities
Value-clearer vocational style emerges
Transition-awareness of vocational decision and subsequent responsibilities
Realistic: Middle Adolescence (17 to young adult)
Exploration-narrow choice to 2 or 3 possibilities
Crystallization-commitment to specific career field
Specification-select job or professional training
Slide #41 TheDevelopmental Longitudinal Approach of Donald Super.
This theory is a developmental and longitudinal approach to career choices over the life span.
Super attempted to unify these perspectives of psychology with certain aspects of career development.
Central to his theory is the confluence of personal development and career development.
Slide #42
Super defines careers as “the life course of a person encountering a series of developmental tasks in such a way as to become the kind of person that he or she wants to become.”
He used the phrase “career maturity” to describe the cognitive and affective processes involved with an individual’s ability to cope with these developmental tasks imposed by biological demands and societal expectations
Slide #43
Super’s studies centered predominantly on ages and the thought process that went into career choices.
As a person ages, they go through certain stages of life
A person’s self-concept is important in job satisfaction.
“Career/Vocational Maturity” is explained as when as a person ages, he wants to see a successful accomplishment in his or her career.
Slide #44 Super’s 6 factors for Obtaining “Career/Vocational Maturity”:
Awareness of the need to plan ahead.
Having decision-making skills.
Having knowledge & use of informational resources.
Having general career information.
Having general information about the world of work.
Having detailed information about occupations of preference.
Slide #45
Super believed that “vocational self-concept develops through physical and mental growth, observations of work, identification with working adults, general environment, and general experience.”
Slide #46 Super’s Vocational Developmental Stages:
Crystallization (14-18)
A cognitive (perceptual) process for deciding vocational goals using interests, values, and available resources.
Specification (18-21)
A period of changing from an uncertain vocation to a specific field.
Implementation(21-24)
A period of completing education and/or training for a preferred career and entering employment.
Stabilization (24-35)
A period of confirming a selected career area with actual work experience using acquired talents and skills.
Consolidation (35+)
A period of content, achievement, growth and greater security.
Slide #47 DONALD SUPER DEVELOPMENT STAGES THEORY:
Growth Stage - Birth to 14 or 15. Individual forms a self-concept, develops capacity, attitudes, interests, and needs and forms a general understanding of the world of work.
Exploratory -15-24. Individual will try out things, have first work experiences, begin to collect relevant job information and make tentative choices about a career.
Establishment 24-44. Individual will begin building skills, and start to stabilize their work experience.
Maintenance 45-65. Individual continues to adjust work style to improve their career or job.
Decline – Disengagement 65+. Individual has reduced output and prepares for retirement.
Slide #48
Although Super originally presented the stages and tasks in a sequential manner, he later added that we cycle and recycle throughout our life span as we adapt to changes in ourselves, as well as to the trends in the workplace.
Understanding these ages and related stages of career development helps the facilitator select appropriate responses and activities.
Slide #49 Decision-Making Theories.
Decision-making theories hypothesize that there are critical points in our lives when choices are made that greatly influence our career development.
The decision-making points are such events as educational choices, entry-level job positions, changing jobs, etc.
Other theories are concerned with ongoing choices across the life span.
The decisions that we make are influenced by our awareness of the choices that are available to us and our knowledge of how to evaluate them.
Slide #50 The Decision Making Making Theory of Tiedeman and O”Hara.
According to Tiedeman and O’Hara (1969), career development is a process of integrating the interaction of personality and society such that one organizes his or her identification with work.
Personality development itself is a process by which the person, over time, both differentiates from others and integrates the self.
How one is different from other people and uniquely expresses “self” is what is meant by differentiation. Integration is defined as how one adjusts to others in society.
Slide #51
A major notion in the Tiedeman and O’Hara paradigm concerns the making of career choices.
Like Donald Super, Tiedeman and O’Hara saw occupational choices as taking place developmentally – over the life span.
Tiedeman and O’Hara recognized that choice related to work and had to be fit into a larger life pattern.
Through work, people can express their ego identity, and in order for work to be satisfactory, it should be congruent with and enhance one’s ego-identity.
Slide #52 The Tiedeman and O’Hara decision-making concept:
Decisions are made everyday about one’s daily activities
Whatever they are, form and structure one’s vocational development
Every decision that is made includes two periods and each period has sub-states as follows:
Slide #53
The period of ANTICIPATION:
a. Exploration.
b. Crystallization.
c. Choice.
d. Specification.
The period of IMPLEMENTATION AND ADJUSTMENT:
a. Induction.
b. Transition/Reformation.
c. Maintenance/Reintegration.