Section 1: Human Development Today and Its Origins

Section 1: Human Development Today and Its Origins

Introduction to Text

1. This text was written to emphasize the cultural approach inunderstanding the way people grow and change across the lifespan.That is in essence human development.

2. Culture is the total pattern of a group’s customs, beliefs, art, and technology passed along through language.

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3. A biological perspective is also offered in this text, especially in terms of how biology interacts with cultural and social influences.

4. In the past, culture was largely ignored by social scientists in favor of universal principles ofdevelopment.

a. Research with White, middle-class Americans was the basis of much developmental research—to theexclusion of other cultures.

b. More researchers are now embracing the influence of culture on development.

5. By learning to think critically about culture, and to appreciate diversity, you will

be better prepared tothink culturallyand to act asa citizen of theglobal village. a. Globalization refers to the increasing connections between different

parts of the world in trade, travel, migration, and communication.

B. Humanity Today: A Demographic Profile

1. PopulationChange

a. Historically,the human population hovered around 10 million.

However, notable growth began to occur about10,000 years ago. b. Medical advances facilitateda population boom, and in 2011, the

Earth’s population was about 7 billion.

c. Increases, of up to 9 billion, are expected to continue until 2050.

i. The increase can be attributedtothecurrentTotal Fertility Rate, or number of live births per woman, which is 2.8 live births per woman. This is higher than the replacement rate of just 2.1.

2. Variations across Countries

a. Developed countries are the most affluent countries in the world as classified bythe Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).

i. These countries likely include the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Australia, New Zealand, and most European countries.

ii. They represent about 18 percent of the world’s population.

b. In contrast,developingcountrieshave less wealth, but an increasing economic presence in the global economy.

i. They represent about 82 percent of the world’s population.

c. Most developed countries, except the United States, are expected to lose population.

i. The U.S. population is expected to have slight gains because the fertility rate is close to the replacement rate and they have generous immigration laws compared to other developed countries.

ii. Japan’s population expected to decline the most due to low fertility and lack of immigration.

d. There is a large income difference between developing and developed countries.

i. In developing countries, most families live on less than $6,000 per year, with Africa remaining the poorest region in the world.

ii. Ninety percent of individuals in developed countries are in the top twenty percent of the global income distribution.

e. There is alsoan educational divide between developing and developed countries.

i. Nearly 100 percent of children in developed countries are

afforded a primary and secondary education, and about half go on to college.

ii. In developing countries, 80 percent of children attend primary

school, but only half advance to secondary school; college attendance is for the rich.

f. Cultural differences across developed and developing countries should

be noted.

i. Developed countries tend to fosterindividualistic values such as independence and self-expression, while developing countries prizecollectivistic values such as obedience and group harmony.

g. The rural and urban areas withindeveloping countries resemble the differences between developing and developed countries.

i. Individualsinruralareas tend to have moretraditional cultures and follow historic traditions. Compared with city dwellers, people in rural areas have lower incomes, fewer educational opportunities, andinadequate medical care.

3. Variations within Countries

a. Human development varies not only between developing and developed countries, but within each as well.

i. Within each country, themajority culture sets most of the norms and standards and holds mostof the positions of power.

ii. There are additional influences from the minority culture.

b. The context in which human development occurs varies based on the environmental setting and circumstances that surround the individual.

c. Additional variations include socioeconomic status (SES), gender, and ethnicity.

i. SES refers to social class and is based on educational level,

income, and occupational status. A high SES is associated with positive developmental outcomes and a low SES is associated with negative outcomes.

ii. Gender roles are the expectations for males and females and

vary within and between countries.

f. In developed countries, gender roles have become more integrated over time with less differentiation. This is

not true in some other cultures.

iii.Ethnicity, which includes cultural origin and traditions, race, religion, and language, also influences human development.

f. Ethnic minorities tend tobe more collectivistic even within an individualistic majority culture.

C. The Origins of Human Diversity

Understanding human development throughthe lens of evolutionary theory provides a perspective that may be challenging but which helps us to understand the human species and culture.

1. Human Origins

a. According to evolutionary theory,species change through the process of natural selection.

i. Young are born with variations, and those with the best adaptations are the most likely to survive.

a. Natural selection results in species change a little at a time over many generations. This can result in the development of new species.

b. Human Evolution

i. Human evolution began about 6–8 million years ago when a common primate ancestor split intodifferent paths.

ii. Thehumanevolutionaryline is called the hominid line.

a. Early hominids developed the ability to walk on two legs, called bipedal locomotion, which allowed themto use their arms and hands for tasks other than moving about.

iii.The hominid line further split, resulting in the Homo

species, which is most closely related to modern humans. iv. The early Homos had an increased brain size and wider

female pelvis.

a. Infant dependency lasted longer, requiring mothers to stay close to home and become gatherers.

b. Males/fathers were able to travel greater distances to hunt or scavenge.

v. With the development of the ability to make tools and control fire, the Homo species began cutting and cooking meat. This led to smaller teeth and jaws because the food was easier to eat.

vi.Our species,Homo sapiens, evolved about 200,000 years ago fromthe Homo species.

a. They were thinner and had lighter bones. b. They had smaller teeth and jaws.

c. Their brain was 30 percent larger than the Homo species.

2. The Origin of Cultures and Civilizations

a. During theUpper Paleolithic period(40,000–10,000 years ago), evidence of culture first appeared.

i. Human evolution began about 6–8 million years ago when a common primate ancestor split intoone ofthreepaths: human, chimpanzee, or gorilla (See Figure 1.2).

ii. Burial of the dead began.

iii.Cultural differences appeared between groups of people.

iv.Trade, industry, and migration across large bodies of water began after the invention of the boat.

b. The Neolithic period followed: about 10,000–5,000 years ago.

i. The hallmarks of the period included farming and animal domestication, a warmer climate, new tools, and permanent dwellings.

c. Civilization as we know it began around 5,000 years ago.

i. Civilization is characterized by thedevelopment of cities, the ability to write, divisionsof labor, SES, and political systems called states.

ii. Civilizations and states arosedue to agricultural efficiency, which led to the opportunity tocreate and work in different

fields. As people spread, the state tended to infrastructure and trade development.

3. Human Evolution and Human Development Today

a. Our human development is based inpart on our evolutionary history.

i. Evolutionary psychology is a biologically based approach to the study of behavior thathas adapted asa result of natural selection.

b. Biologically, little evolutionary change has occurredsince the origin of

Homo sapiens—but much has changed in termsof culture.

c. Our cultures shape our raw biological material,producingvariationsin development throughout the lifespan.

d. Culture is what makes us uniquefrom non-human animals, and it

developed in part fromour large brains and our ability to learn, create, and adapt.

II. Section Two: Theories of Human Development

A. Classic Theories

1. Historical Focus: Ancient Conceptions of Human Development

a. Dharmashastras, the oldest known conception ofa life course, was advanced about 3,000 years ago by the Hindus and is comprised of 4 stages, including Apprentice, Householder, Forest Dweller, and Renunciant.

b. The second conception of life wasdrawn fromJudaism, from the

Talmud (about 1,500 years ago), and is comprised of 14 stages.

2. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

a. The basis of Freud’s psychosexual theory of human development was a sexual desire that shifted around the body during a person’s early development.

b. There are several stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

c. Failure to successfully complete each stage results in afixation that will impact later development.

d. There are limitations of Freud’s psychosexual theory.

i. No single motive can explainthe complexity of human development.

ii. The theory was not developed ortested with children: only a retrospective usingtroubled, adult women.

e. It was the dominant theory until thelatter halfofthe twentieth century;

it is no longer considered accurate.

3. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

a. Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development was based on our need to become integrated into our socialandculturalenvironment throughout the lifespan.

b. Each of the eight stages of development is characterized by a distinctive developmental challengeor crisis that a person must

successfullyresolve. His theory extends across the lifespan. i. Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy)

ii. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (toddlerhood)

iii.Initiative vs.Guilt (earlychildhood)

iv.Industryvs.Inferiority(middle to late childhood)

v. Identity vs. Identity Confusion (adolescence)

vi.Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood)

vii.Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood)

viii. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood)

c. The psychosocial theory that wedevelop across the lifespan with cultural and social influences is widely accepted.

d. Not all ofthe stages he outlined havebeen fully embraced.

B. Behavioristic and Learning Theories

1. Pavlov and Skinner: Laws of Conditioning

a. Behaviorism developed as a reaction to psychoanalytical theory as well as a need for a more scientific approach.

b. Persons such as John Watson who used the behaviorist approach also are called learning theorists; they believe that all behavior is learned and shaped.

c. Classicalconditioning is the process of association between a neutral

stimulus and one that previously existed (unconditioned stimulus). d. Ivan Pavlov’s work with dogs produced one of the best known

examples; the dogs were conditioned to salivate to a bell.

e. B.F. Skinner studied operant conditioningthrough the use of reinforcement. This process is used by parents and teachers who shape behaviors with grades, praise, and other reinforcements.

2. Social Learning Theory

a. Social Learning theory studied how behaviors canchange through observation or modeling.

b. Albert Bandura studied aggressionand other behaviors that were modeled and imitated.

C. Constructivist Theories

1. Piaget’s Cognitive Constructivist Theory

a. Jean Piaget observed children’s cognitive development and concluded that children function differently. Hedevelopedastagetheoryof cognitive development.

b. Piaget suggested that children organize abilities into mental structures

and developed the cognitive constructivist approach.

c. There are four stages, according to Piaget (see Table 1.3). i. Sensorimotor stage (ages Birth to two years)

ii. Preoperational stage (agestwo years to seven years)

iii. Concreteoperations stage (ages seven to eleven years)

iv. Formal operations stage (ages eleven to fifteen and up)

d. The changesin stages are due to maturation, a biological unfolding of cognitive skills that occurs in conjunction with interaction with the world.

e. Schemes are the cognitive structuresfor processing, organizing, and interpreting information.

f. Assimilation occurs when new information is taken in to fit an existing scheme.

g. Accommodation involves changing or adapting the new information to fit or developing a new scheme.

h. Piaget’s theory helps explain how persons take in and utilize new

information, and it continues to bevery influential even though research has modified the original ideas.

2. Vygotsky’sSocial Constructivist Theory

a. The Russian psychologist’s theory has gained popularity and is known as a social constructivist or sociocultural theory. He emphasized the ways in which learning is actively constructed through social interaction.

b. Thezone of proximal developmentis the difference between the

skills that the child can accomplish alone and the ones that the child can accomplish with guidance froma teacher.

c. Scaffolding is the degree of assistance provided to children in the zone ofproximaldevelopment.

D. Recent Theories

1. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

a. The ecological theoryof development is a systems approach to development: not a stage theory. It focuses on five social systems that influence development.

i. Microsystem (a more common term is context):

immediate environmental settingsandrelationships ii. Mesosystem: the network of the microsystems

iii.Exosystem: societal institutions with an indirect

influence

iv.Macrosystem: shared cultural beliefs and values that include the economy and government

v. Chronosystem:individual and historical changes in developmental circumstances

b. Ecological theory differs fromstage theories because of its cultural

emphasis and the recognition of historical contexts and of children as active participants in their development.

2. A Stage Model for This Book

a. Combination of Erikson’s and Bronfenbrenner’sapproaches

i. A seven-stage approach todevelopment fromprenatal development through emerging adulthood that takes into account multiple contexts interactingin many different ways

ii. The stages are divided by the traditional periods with the addition of emerging adulthood between adolescence and young adulthood.

iii.Emerging adulthood is a life stage, primarily seen in developed countries, that is a transition fromparental dependence to independence butlacks the hallmarks of adulthood.

iv.Emerging adulthood usually occurswhen tertiary education is pursued, thus delayingmarriageandparenthood.

v. Age ranges are more specific for the early stages,but less defined in the last two stages.

vi.Although this text uses a stage approach, be aware that development is acontinuous and gradual process.

III.Section Three: HowWe Study Human Development

A. The Scientific Study of Human Development

1. The Five Steps of the Scientific Method

a. Identifying a question to be investigated b. Forming a hypothesis

i. A hypothesis is the researcher’s idea about the possible answer to his or her question.

ii. The formation of the hypothesis is crucial to determining the research methods and design.

c. Choosing a research method and design

i. The research method is the way the hypothesis is investigated.

ii. Theresearch design is the data collection plan. d. Collecting data to test hypothesis

i. Data are collected froma sample, a group of participants

that should be representative of thepopulation of interest. ii. Using a representative sample increases the generalizability

of the findings so that conclusions may extend to the

population.

iii.The procedure details how the study is conducted and the data are collected.

e. Drawing conclusions that leadto new questions and hypotheses i. Conclusions are based on results that have been statistically

analyzed.

ii. The researcher determines whether the data support or refute the hypothesis.

iii.The research is usually disseminated by writinga

manuscript that is submitted to a peer-reviewed journal so that the work can be assessed for accuracy and credibility.

iv.Research may lead to the development or modification of

theories.

f. A theory is an original framework to explain a set of interconnected ideas that fosters new research.

2. Ethics in Human Development Research

a.The requirements of theinstitutional review board usually include the following components:

i. Protection fromphysical and psychological harm

ii. Informed consent fromadult participants and the parents of minor participants, as well as the child’s assent

b.The consent formor cover letter provides basic information about the

researcher and the study.

i. This includes the purpose, the nature and extent of participation, risks, and benefits of the study.

ii. Subjectsmust also be informed that participation is voluntary and withdrawal at any time is permissible.

a. Confidentiality

I. information not shared outside of researchers

II. data reported in aggregate

iii.Deception and debriefing

a. Deception is sometimes required to study phenomenathatsubjectsmight want to hide.

b. If deception is used, the researchers mustdebrief that participant afterward. That is, they must tell the participant the truepurpose of the study.

B. Methods and Designs in Research

1. Research Methods

a.Questionnaires (Surveys)

i. Closed questions have specific responses; this makes it easy to collect and analyze the data. This is useful for large data sets.

ii. Open-endedquestions allow self-generated responses by the

participant.

iii.Limitations: Closed-ended questionsthat use an existing response set may miss the depth, complexity, and diversity of the participants.

b.Interviews

i. Interviews capture a subjects’ individuality and complexity by allowing themto describe their lives in their own words.

ii. Interviews provide qualitative data that are not readily quantifiable. iii.Limitations: difficult and time consuming to code into useful

categories c. Observations

i. Involve making systematic observations and recording that

information

a. Locations: naturalistic and laboratory b. Advantage:betterthanself-report

c. Limitation:possiblechangeinparticipant behavior when he or she has knowledge of observation

d.Ethnographic Research

i. in-depth observational research over time that occurs when the researcher lives and interacts with theparticipants

ii. Advantage:naturalistic settingthat more accurately captures daily

life

iii.Limitation: time-consuming andexpensive; researchers may develop observer bias due to personal relationships with participants

e.Case Studies

i. A case studyis a detailedexamination of the life of one person or a small number of persons.