2. Elites & groups, beliefs & values
Roles and Privileges of Kings
– Hereditary title for life unless exiled or deposed – 2 from each of the ancient clans, the Agiad and the Eurypontid.
– Members of Gerousia
Judicial powers
– Life and death in war
– could decide who had the most right to an unbetrothed heiress
– supervised adoptions
Religious powers
– as many pigs/goats for sacrifice as needed
– supervised worship
– had the two main priesthoods
– were believed to be of divine descent
– chose Pythians (messengers to Delphic oracle)
Military powers
– permanent generalship
– fought in front like of battle
– only one at a time allowed to go to war to avoid conflict in policy (Herodotus)
Privileges
– received all honorary gifts
– were assigned choice land
– double portion at banquets to dispense with
– were given extra measures of barley and wine
– all except ephors had to stand for them
– given a hand-picked bodyguard of 100 in battle
(all described by Herodotus)
Sources
Herodotus (as above)
Xenophon - “he [Lycurgus] appointed him [the king] choice land in many of the provincial cities, enough to satisfy moderate needs without excess of wealth.” ...and so on.
Features and Structure of Government
Ephors
– 5 magistrates elected by the assembly from any position in society, held office for one year
– Ran Krypteia; guardians to the kings
– Public directors of policy, could decide on laws
– Administered laws, could punish whoever they chose, could give on the spot fines
– Could depose or imprison other magistrates, had the right to arrest/imprison kings for misconduct.
– Two accompanied a king to war.
– Presided over assembly
– Year named after Eponymous Ephor
– did not have to rise for kings
Gerousia
– council of 28 men over 60 + two kings, members for life
– had to respect kings and Ephors
– sole arbiters in trial for life
– proposed laws, could veto assembly, judged death/exile cases
– Well-respected, power and reputation, honoured in society
Assembly (Apella or Ecclesia)
– All citizen males over 30 (life)
– Elected the magistrates, debated, voted on laws by acclamation
– Could ratify treaties, declare war, chose which king would lead the army
– Separated them from non-citizens.
Sources
Xenophon: “Monthly they exchange oaths, the Ephors on behalf of the state, the king himself on his own behalf”
Aristotle: “Some, indeed, say that the best constitution is the Lacedaemonian because it is made up of oligarchy, monarchy, and democracy ... Others, however, declare the Ephoralty to be a tyranny, and find the element of democracy in the common meals and in the habits of daily life.”
Grant (The Rise of the Greeks) - First Authentic democracy – but only as far as citizens were concerned: “like all other city-states however, it only provided citizen status to a limited range of the population.”
The Military Elite
– Hoplites (heavily armed infantry) were needed to control the helots & fight the Messenians. Reliance on them = increased status and political influence
– replaced the aristocratic
– Military caste was formed by the training of every citizen male as a soldier (Agoge)
– The military mess (syssitia) was maintained by the clan (Phratry). This encouraged sharing and fellowship.
– Men continued to sleep at the barracks even when married. Having male lovers was encouraged as it was thought this would heighten loyalty to one another.
Hoplite armour:
– large crested helmet
– bronze shield (“easy to polish, slow to tarnish” - Xenophon)
– leg greaves
– cuirass with metal scales/skirt of flaps
– spear
– short sword
– red cloaks (were warlike, least effeminate, connection to amulets for warding off danger, intimidating)
– As the Spartan population diminished, (they were eventually outnumbered 15/1 by helots and Perioikoi) they were forced to add cavalry and train helots as light-armed skirmishers.
– The Perioikoi were often used as light infantry or even hoplites to make up the numbers
– Sparta never had any significant navy
– In time of war craftsman, equipment and the army were organised by the Ephors. Donkeys were used as pack animals.
– The Spartans' final victory over Messene in the mid 7th century gained rich extra farming land; therefore the privileged class in Sparta could become a full-time army.
– Also allowed the provision of quality weaponry
– Refused to build city walls as it was thought the hoplites were all the protection needed.
– Warrior culture encouraged by festivals such as the Gymnopaedia and attitudes were reflected in a proverbial woman's instruction to her son: “return with your shield, or on it.” (Plutarch)
Sources
Aristotle: criticised that the Spartans did not prepare for anything other than warfare, and so had nothing to achieve after victory.
Xenophon: “the king is left with no duties ... except those of a priest ... and a general in human affairs.” Also writes about sacrifices and the sacred fire which did not go out.
Plutarch: the Spartans knew “they should not make war often, or too long, with the same enemy, lest they should train and instruct them in war” (Clever tactics/arrogance).
Also “every man went home without lights [from the syssitia] for the use of them was, on all occasions, forbid, to the end that they might accustom themselves to march boldly in the dark.” (Military present in all things).
Tyrtaeus (7th C): describes the army and the dedication to staying in line and comradeship.
Herodotus: tells of Demaratus (Greek who accompanied Xerxes) telling the Persian king about the Spartan army before the battle of Thermopylae. Though vastly outnumbered, they show confidence, bravery, tenacity... this is reflected in another Greek's attitude shows the Spartans legendary status.
Education System
– According to Plutarch, 'training' began even before a Spartan child was born. Lycurgus' reforms included physical activity being encouraged for women, and urging couples to marry 'in the prime of life'.
– This was in order to produce the most healthy children (though this is scientifically incorrect)
– After birth, babies would be inspected to see if they were healthy. The unhealthy were abandoned on Mt Taygetus or in a cave to die (or possibly be adopted by a helot family)
Male Education
– At age 7, boys were taken from their mothers and sent to join their age group at the barracks. They were now property of the state. Were taught military skills and reading and writing, and from age 10, music, dancing and athletics.
– Instead of slaves as guardians (paidagogos) for the boys, as was usual in Athens the warden (paidonomos) watched over and punished them. He would be an elder of important position – this reflects the value Spartans placed on education. (Xenophon).
– At about 12 they are taught skill and endurance games, and to steal. They boys slept on beds of reeds they gathered to make them 'tougher' and used to sleeping outdoors.
– At age 18, became an eirene (cadet). Fought in the Spartan army but not in the front line. They joined a syssitia, could give punishment, and were allowed to marry.
– From 23-30 they were a full-time soldier.
– At 30, became a full citizen and could live at home and grow their hair – still ate at the barracks.
Female Education
– Unlike most Greek states such as Athens, Spartan girls and women were encouraged to participate in athletics rather than domestic chores such as weaving.
– They were taught singing and were often involved in religious processions.
– other Greeks criticised Spartan women for being too independent (like Helen of Troy, who they worshipped)
– Children usually exercised nude, this was meant to encourage appreciation of physical health. The freedom of Spartan society is seen in the poetry of Alcman (Late 7th BC) who appreciates the physical beauty of Spartan girls and (unusually) names them.
– The purpose of female education was to foster loyalty to the state and for them to be healthy, in order to bear better Spartiate children.
– The girls and women also were supposed to watch the boys in athletic competitions and training, so as to ridicule them if they made a mistake.
Sources
Plutarch: “And, indeed, Lycurgus was of a persuasion that children were not so much the property of their parents as of the whole commonwealth” (Life of Lycurgus)
Xenophon: “he gave (the paidonomos) authority to muster the boys, wand watch over them to punish them severely in cases of misbehaviour ... and the result is much modesty and much obedience.” [Lycurgus decreed] “The female should practice bodily exercise no less than the male sex..." “They should contract marriages only when they were in full bodily vigour, deeming this injunction also conducive to producing excellent offspring...”
Alcman (see above)
Helots and Perioikoi
Helots
– were Messenians and dispossessed original inhabitants of Sparta
– war was declared against them each year to justify repression
– Were the labour basis of the economy. Were granted a plot pf land and could keep surplus produce after quota was fulfilled
– Often assisted hoplites @ war, sometimes served as light infantry.
– Krypteia: Spartan boys in military training allowed to kill helots... later became 'secret police' to deal w/ helots.
– Helots were owned by the state; rather chattel slaves as in Athens – assigned to a master but could not be bought or sold.
– Thessaly also had a 'serf' class, called the Perestai.
– Other Greeks were disapproving of Sparta for not enslaving only foreigners.
– Freed women from chores and allowed men to spend their days hunting and training
– Despite harsh treatment, the helots were allowed to stay in family groups, have own communities & religion. Those in remote areas rarely saw their masters apart from playing their quota of produce. In this respect they were better off than chattel slaves.
– Spartan sense of responsibility to helots is shown by the helots' right of sanctuary at cape Taenaron.
– Treatment was probably worse after the ten-year revolt at Mt Ithome in the mid 5th BC.
Sources
Strabo: “the Lacedemonians held the helots as state-slaves ... having assigned them certain places to live and special services to perform.” However he is confused about the difference between helots and Perioikoi.
Tyrtaeus: describes the hardship following losing the Messenian war: “like donkeys suffering under heavy loads”
Plutarch: “A curse was decreed to fall upon the Spartan who exacted more than the long-established rent.”
“Homer was the poet of the Spartans, Hesiod of the helots, for Homer had given the necessary directions for warfare, Hesiod for agriculture.”
Theopompus (4th BC): “The Spartans and Thessalonians ... recruited their slave populations from the Greeks who previously inhabited the country they now control ... and they called those whom they enslaved respectively Helots and Perestai.”
Ephorus (4th BC): “...their master was permitted neither to manumit them nor to sell them beyond the frontier.”
Myron (3rd BC): “They assign to the Helots every shameful task leading to disgrace.”
Kritias (late 5th BC): Fear of helots: “...in campaign, he always carries his spear with him in the belief that he will be stronger than the helot who carries the shield alone.”
Thucydides writes of the Spartans' belief that the 'sacrilege' of killing helots at their sanctuary caused Poseidon to send an Earthquake.
Perioikoi
– Technically not citizens, members of communities around Laconia and Messene, unequally allied to Sparta.
– Commanded all passes including waterways into Sparta.
– Essential to army as light infantry, to economy as traders.
– Paid tribute, most remained loyal, some became very rich. Were in most respects politically independent.
– Could not form own alliances or conduct independent foreign policy – therefore Sparta was dominant.
– Gained protection of Sparta, could live free from fear invasion (ideal commercial climate)
– Possibly mined the iron and constructed armour for the Spartan army.
– Probably contributed to keeping Helots subjugated especially in Messene
– Took part in some the Spartan religious festivals, but had own community cults as well.
– Were essential for Spartans as they, in combination with the helots, took care of aspects of society that prevented them from being solely devoted to military pursuits. Hence, it was important for the Spartiates to maintain a good relationship with them.
Sources:
Herodotus: “a body of five thousand Laconian Perioikoi, all picked men and fully armed, set forth from Sparta” shows they were a major part of the army.
Xenophon: mentions them vaguely in connection with their involvement in a conspiracy along w/ helots, freedmen and hypomeiones.