e-Journal Of Economics And Management Science e-ISSN: 2462-2532Volume 2- 2016
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BARRIERS TO PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PARTICIPATION AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY LEVELSAMONG MALAYSIAN WOMEN CIVIL SERVANTS
Roayaah Binti Zambri1, Dr. Nadiah Diyana Tan Abdullah2, Dr. Rezian-na Mohammed Kassim3
1 Faculty of Sport Science and Recreation
Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia
2 Faculty of Sport Science and Recreation
Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia
3 Faculty of Sport Science and Recreation
Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia
ABSTRACT
This present study aimed to investigate the difference in barriers for physical activity participation among Malaysian women civil servants within their physical activity levels. A sample of 447 women civil servant aged from 18 to 59 years old completed a set of physical activity questionnaire and their current levels of physical activity. The results showed that sixty-eight percent of the women were classified as inactive women that indicated that majority were not physically active enough to achieve positive health outcomes. Besides, the results also revealed that there are significant differences between barriers to physical activity and physical activity levels (F (4, 436) = 4.86, p = .00; Wilks’ Lambda = .74; partial eta squared = .07). Hence, women in later stages exhibited that they had also perceived higher in resources and skills, personal well-being, and cultures and religiosity barriers than women in earlier stages. However, there were significant differences in mean barriers among those women according to their physical activity levels. Through the identification of barriers between each physical activity levels, better intervention programs may be implemented to enhance the participation to physical activity among these women civil servant. This finding also provides a future insight to better understand the physical activity behaviour among Malaysian women civil servants.
Field of research:barriers to physical activity participation, physical activity levels, women civil servant.
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- Introduction
Malaysia as developing country has recorded a high occurrence of chronic diseases as reported by Mohamud et al., (2011) and Department of Statistics of Malaysia (2010). These diseases are expected to cause over three quarters of all deaths in 2030 (Wan Rabiah, Patterson, & Pegg, 2011). Malaysians are also represented by 60% of adults that can be classified as a non-active group with major health problems (Mohd Zaid & Wilson., 2009), as evidence by the increased percentage in obese women in this category (Tan & Yim, 2010; Wan Rabiah, et al., 2011).In light of that, physical activity has been regarded as the main medium for preventing chronic disease (Phongsavan, McLean, & Bauman, 2007). The benefits from engaging in physical activity regularly were recognized not only in health but also in terms of physical, psychological, physiological and social benefits. Practising moderate and vigorous physical activities frequently brings about various health benefits (Biddle & Fuchs, 2009; Tracey, Dawson, & Berry, 2008)such as reduced feelings of depression and anxiety, reduced risks of obesity (Morris, Bourne, Eldemire-Shearer, & McGrowder, 2010) and improved quality of life in individuals (Gomez-Lopez, Gallegos, & Extremera, 2010). Even moderate or vigorous exercise such as brisk walk, climbing stairs and cycling may enhance health because of the energy consumption involved.
However, the rate of participation in physical activity was increased in alarming rate. Adults particularly women were found to be not being physically active to achieve positive health outcomes.It was also proven that compared to men, women was found to lead sedentary lifestyle and were not physically active enough to achieve positive health outcomes as reported by previous studies (Hanlon, Morris, & Nabbs, 2010; Heather & Roberts, 2010). The common reasons identified for women not participating in physical activity were lack of time due to work and family commitment; lack of resources or skills, and not enough support from family or friend (Dixon, 2009; Sit, Kerr, & Wong, 2008) and other behavioural, environmental, and psychological factors (Biddle & Mutrie, 2008; Dixon, 2009).
The reduction in energy among civil servants such as increased occupational sedentariness, development of labour-saving devices, motorizes transportation, and sedentary entertainment in workplace (Yancey et al., 2007) have contributed to the absenteeism, sick leave, disability, injuries and health care claims (Anderson et al., 2009). As the present study focused on Malaysian civil servant, the existed barriersto physical activity participation should be tackled since these groups of women are considered as the backbone of the country’s development. Thus, healthy and active women civil servant is important in order to work effectively and efficiently and also to venture any changes on their responsibilities toward a better future. This is crucial as the evident from the previous study has been reported that the active workers had a lower rate of absenteeism compared to non-active workers (Heather & Roberts, 2010).
Effective physical activity interventions may enhance the physical activity participation among these women civil servants. The identification of barriers towards physical activity participation is capable to tackle the number of women who are not being physically active enough. In relation, numerous researches have been conducted in physical activity psychology especially in determining the physical activity participation among the people involved in several research setting (Asztalos et al., 2012; Biddle & Fuchs, 2009). Despite all researches, there has been a small number of data from Asian samples which can be considered as not been adequate to describe the reasons to physical activity participation (Han, Kim, Park, Kang, & Ryu, 2009) especially among civil servants.
Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the differences between barriers to physical activity participation and physical activity levels among these group of respondents.
- Barriers to Physical Activity Participation
When discussing the reasons on why people are not participating in physical activity, researchers have identified the barriers existed which affected them. Inactive lifestyles and inconsistencies negative influences of physical activity may enhance the emergence of overweight and obesity phenomenon (Trost, Owen, Bauman, Sallis, & Brown, 2002). Barriers to physical activity participation also have been continuously reported to have negative relationships between an individual’s perception and individual’s actual involvement in physical activity (Carron, Hausenblas, & Estabrooks, 2003). Besides that, barriers to physical activity varied among demographic variables and psychological factors such as differences in age, gender, socioeconomic profile and level of education.
Carron, et al., (2003) stated that the major barriers reported by people who were trying to engage in physical activity were lack of time, lack of access to convenient facilities, and lack of safe environment. Furthermore, lack of time, being too tired, parenthood, role overload, being too lazy or unmotivated, not being the sporty type, being too fat to exercise, and being too shy or embarrassed to exercise were found to be barrier among women with normal weight (Jewson, Spittle, & Casey, 2008). Previous researchers also stated that common key barriers to physical activity participation in women are lack of time due to work and/or family commitment; resources and skills; and family and friend support (Biddle & Mutrie, 2008; Dixon, 2009; Hanlon, et al., 2010; Segar, Eccles, Peck, & Richardson, 2007; Sit, et al., 2008; Sodergen, Hylander, Tornkvist, Sundquist, & Sundquist, 2008; Stanis, Schneider, Chavez, & Shinew, 2009). However, it was suggested that the lack of time was not a barrier but an excuse to not engaging in physical activity.
People were found to perceive barrier significantly differences according to their physical activity levels. This is supported by Jewson, et al., (2008) where they stated that there were significant different between inactive and active women in terms of their perceived behavioural which influence them to do or do not engage in physical activity.
- Physical Activity Levels
In the present study, the stages of change from The Transtheoretical Model were utilized to describe the physical activity levels of Malaysian women civil servants. The TTM was developed by Prochaska and DiClemente (1983) to facilitates the intervention strategies that are both individually tailored and can be easily modified to fit the selected population (Buckworth & Dishman, 2002; Fallon, Hausenblas, & Nigg, 2005). The Transtheoretical Model is appropriate to examine the behavioural changes involved when individual are making a decision either to move into the next stage, relapse back to previous stage and either to stay in their current stage. Hence, Fallon, et al., (2005), Jordan, Nigg, Norman, Rossi & Benisovich (2002), Kennett, Worth, & Forbes (2009), and Tracey, et al., (2008) has stated that the TTM was developed as a comprehensive model of behaviour change, incorporating cognitive, behavioural, and temporal aspects into one unified approach for behaviour change.
The TTM is completed by the presence of ten processes which reflect cognitive and behavioural strategies that might be used to help people modify their thoughts, environment and experience (Gorely & Bruce, 2000). It also called as an attempt to change their behaviour. As stated by Kennett, et al., (2009), previous researcher claimed that there is a differential use in the process of behaviour change and the TTM propose that an individual move towards following stages in the behavioural change. In addition, the TTM is also beneficial to some health programs because of its applicability to interventions targeting multiple behaviours to increase public health.
As one of the processes in TTM, stages of change reflect the temporal dimension in which behavioural changes attempt to occurred (Callaghan, Khalil, & Morres, 2010; DeLong, 2006). The stage of change construct characterizes the time or readiness dimension into five progressive stages when behaviour change occur(Nigg et al., 2011). Hence, the stage of change is also thought to be cyclical rather than linear as many individuals did not succeed in their efforts at starting and sticking with lifestyles changes (Fallon, et al., 2005; Gorely & Bruce, 2000; Marcus & Forsyth, 2003b). The stages of change consist of pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action and maintenance stage.
- Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study was to determine the barriers to physical activity participation among women civil servant and also to identify the significant differences between barriers to physical activity participation and physical activity levels of Malaysian women civil servant of the supporting groups. Based on that, seven of hypotheses were formulated:
HO1 – There is no significant difference between resources and skills barriers with physical activity levels among women civil servant of the supporting groups.
HO2 – There is no significant difference between psychosocial barriers with physical activity levels among women civil servant of the supporting groups.
H03 – There is no significant difference between personal well-being barriers with physical activity levels among women civil servant of the supporting groups.
HO4 – There is no significant difference between time barriers with physical activity levels among women civil servant of the supporting groups.
HO5 – There is no significant difference between weather and inconvenience barriers with physical activity levels among women civil servant of the supporting groups.
HO6 – There is no significant difference between family and friend support barriers with physical activity levels among women civil servant of the supporting groups.
HO7 – There is no significant difference between cultures and religiosity barriers with physical activity levels among women civil servant of the supporting groups.
- Methodology
5.1Sample
The respondents in this study were women civil servants specifically in the supporting groups of the selected ministries as the target population. Multistage cluster sample has been carried out to determine the sample size for this study. 447 of respondents’ agerange of 18 to 58 years from six ministries in Wilayah Persekutuan Putrajaya who volunteered to answer a set of questionnaire provided by the researcher.
5.2Instrumentation
Self-administered questionnaire were distributed to the targeted respondents. Every set of questionnaires consisted of close-ended questions and also contained several sections with each section measured the barriers to physical activity participation and physical activity levels of the respondents. The questionnaire was adopted and adapted from previous researchers and this questionnaire was back to back translated by four language expert before the distribution process.
Section A of questionnaire consisted of questions on demographic background of the respondents such as age, marital status, race, religion, educational level and monthly salary. In section B, questionnaire from Physical Activity Risk Reduction (PARR) which addressed all of the factors of barriers aroused among the respondents in this study. This scale was adapted from Guan & Zhu (1999) which consisted of 23-items rated by the 5-point Likert Scales ranging from (5) “Very Often” to (1) “Never”. This scale also consisted of six barriers dimensions which are (1) resources and skills; (2) psychosocial; (3) personal well-being; (4) time; (5) weather and inconvenience; and (6) family or friend support. However, five new items which related to cultural and religiosity have been added in this scale to better understanding within the cultures aspect among Malaysian civil servant.
Physical activity levels adopted from Stages of Change Measure (SCM) by Marcus, Selby, Niaura & Rossi (1992a) was included in Section C of the questionnaire. This section was used to measure the respondent current levels of physical activity which represents the five statements of physical activity behaviours.
5.3Data Collection Procedure
An ethic approval from the university institutional ethical committee was obtained before the actual research conducted. Once approval acquired, the pilot study was conducted among respondents with similar criteria. After the data from pilot study was validated, the next process of data collection was carried out.
To gather the targeted respondents, several phone calls have been made to the six ministries regarding the procedure involved.After required information had been obtained, official letters were sent to all respective officers at the Corporate and Communication Department in each of the six ministries. Once approvals from these ministries had been obtained, the researcher approached these respective officers to seek their help to organize a meeting with all potential respondents who meet the criteria required to be the subjects in this study.
The respondents were gathered and a briefing session was conducted before the distribution of questionnaires took place. During the briefing session the researcher explained the purpose of the study and ethical issues involved in this study. The data collection was conducted during working hours to get a higher returning rate. The period of collecting data took about four to five weeks to administer the questionnaires from one ministry to other ministries.
- Findings and Discussions
6.1Reliability Analysis
The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients for the whole dimensions of PARR scales revealed ranged value from .65 to .91. Hence, PARR showed the satisfactory alpha value which was .65 for Family and Friends dimension, Cultures and Religiosity (.91), Resources and Skills (.85), Personal Well-being (.83), Weather and Inconvenience (.77), Psychosocial (.74) and Time (.73).
6.2Descriptive Analysis
From the 447 of the respondents, 68% respondents selected pre-contemplation, contemplation, and preparation stages, while 32% of respondents selected action and maintenance stages which is best describe their current physical activity levels. Thus, it can be concluded that most of the women civil servants of the supporting group were not being physically active enough for them to achieve a positive health outcomes. Besides, in this study, it was found the three most important barriers to physical activity participation that hindered these women civil servant were resources and skills barriers followed by personal well-being barriers and cultures and religiosity barriers as indicated in Table 1.
Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation for Barriers to PA Participation
Variables / Mean / Std. DeviationResources and skills / 19.80 / 4.58
Personal Well-being / 17.55 / 3.73
Cultural and Religiosity / 17.46 / 4.55
Psychosocial / 17.08 / 3.52
Weather and Inconvenience / 9.75 / 2.51
Family and Friends / 6.76 / 1.80
Time / 5.99 / 1.94
Therefore, the researcher assumed that the lack of resources and skills, personal well-being and cultures and religiosity most affected them to be physically inactive. Since lack of resources and skills were the most barriers that they have to participate in physical activity, this is might be due to the lack of facilities to do physical activity as well as less of knowledge in doing physical activity provided to them. Respondents also indicated that they were afraid of pain and intensity in order to engage in physical activity. Other than that, the respondent also felt the lack of physical activity facilities and programs that stressed on culturally and religion sensitivity; and they also felt a disconnection and isolation with the society when they were doing physical activity.
To test the seven formulated hypotheses in this study, a one-way between-groups multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)were computed in order to identify the significant difference in all barriers variables with physical activity levels. Table 2 revealed the differences between barriers and physical activity levels among women civil servant of the supporting groups. It was showed that all of barriers have a significantly difference with the physical activity levels F (4, 436) = 4.86, p =.00; Wilks’ Lambda = .74; partial eta squared = .07 since p level was less than .05. Other than that, all barriers variables also showed the significant difference with physical activity levels. All of the hypotheses were rejected. The findings are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Means (standard deviation) one-way ANOVA: barriers to physical activity participation and physical activity levels.
PA Participation / Stages / Sig.Pre-contemplation
(PC) / Contemplation (C) / Preparation (P) / Action
(A) / Maintenance (M)
Resources/Skills / 16.35 (4.52) / 18.21 (4.55) / 20.46 (4.31) / 20.57 (4.29) / 22.28 (3.56) / .000
Psychosocial / 15.5 (3.82) / 15.77 (3.73) / 17.24 (3.16) / 17.86 (3.11) / 19.21 (2.94) / .000
Personal Well-being / 14.79 (4.06) / 16.62 (3.68) / 17.53 (3.51) / 18.62 (3.58) / 19.64 (2.72) / .000
Time / 4.82 (2.07) / 5.62 (2.06) / 5.96 (1.77) / 6.44 (2.31) / 6.92 (1.73) / .000
Weather
/Inconvenience / 8.68 (3.16) / 9.04 (2.74) / 9.88 (2.31) / 9.89 (2.19) / 11.39 (1.55) / .000
Family/Friends / 5.62 (1.84) / 6.09 (1.79) / 6.82 (1.65) / 7.36 (1.62) / 6.76 (1.52) / .000
Cultures/ Religiosity / 13.73 (5.44) / 16.33 (4.46) / 18.13 (4.15) / 18.29 (3.73) / 19.02 (4.83) / .000
As can be seen in Table 2, respondents in all of stages perceived barriers significantly different. However, respondents in maintenance stage were found to perceive higher in all barriers in terms of resources and skills, psychosocial, personal well-being, time, weather and inconvenience, family and friends, and cultures and religiosity compared to respondents in earlier stages. Therefore, this finding of the current study has been supported by previous study where barriers to physical activity participation were found to be significantly different with stages of change (Sit, et al., 2008). This is due to the inner feelings and difficulty that stimulated differently between individuals, even though these individuals might seem to have a few similar motives to participate in physical activity. For example, women at the later stages and women at the earlier stages found that weight loss as a common facilitator, while time was found as a common barrier for later stages women and laziness was found as a common barrier to earlier stages women in order to participate in physical activity. This is supported by the Jewson, et al.,(Jewson, et al., 2008) where they stated that there were significant different between inactive and active women in terms of their perceived behavioural which influence them to do or do not engage in physical activity.