Republic of the Sudan

Republic of the Sudan

Sudanese Centre for Studies and Environmental Research - Science Club for UNESCO

Sustainability of Biomass

Energy

Ouargla University – Algeria23-24.11.2014

By

Eltahra Hamad Magzoub and Hanan Hamad Magzoub

and

2014

Table of contents

Table of contents

ABSTRACT

1. Introduction

2. Energy Supply...... 5

2.1. Energy supply Problem...... 5

2-2- Forests are the main source of energy in Sudan.

2.3. Firewood and charcoal production

2.4. Change in Forest Cover (1990 – 2011)

2.5. Forests Problems

2.3. Petroleum Production 1980 -2000

2.4. Electricity Supply:-

3. Energy Demand

3.1. The Household in Sudan

3.2, Energy for cooking

4. Prediction of fuel wood consumption...... 17

4.1. Khartoum State...... 18

4.4. Darfur Region:-...... 19

6. References

ABSTRACT

This paper aims to determine consumption patterns of biomass energy for Sudan. We concern about the Household consumption only and the population growth also to estimate the future energy consumption by prediction the energy consumption for the year to come.

The paper also attempted to outline the magnitude of the energy crisis and the long term effects of energy policies on the already damaged environment and troubled economy. Also the paper attempted to provide rational alternative solutions that can be economically, environmentally and socially acceptable.

The paper revealed that the forests are the main source of energy in Sudan

A sample of 6 states, selected to be the core of the study. And then to generalize the idea.

Statistical analysis was applied to data for consumption of household using excel program.

The result shows that Khartoum state is the largest consumer of commercial type of energy (e.g. Charcoal and LPG) and South Darfur is main firewood consumer. The result shows that to replace 45.45 m3 from Fuel wood to LPG equivalent for selected states we needed 19.544 tons of LPG annually.

The paper conclude that: to sustain growth, people and countries must have adequate energy services to meet the household basic needs. Petroleum products and natural gas are acting in some cases as competitors and on other as complements to charcoal and firewood.

It is recommended that:-

• Rational use of local fuel wood resources is needed better management of the forest resource
• More researches should be adopted to sustain forests and introduce energy alternatives resources
• More trees cultivation must be needed.

1. Introduction

Sudan depended heavily on its forests and biomass resources for the satisfaction of energy requirement. In this respect, the national Energy assessment study found that the total energy consumed by household in the Sudan is accounted 6 million TOE, 96% of this energy is from biomass (24%) charcoal, firewood (59.9%) agricultural and animal residue (12%), electricity consumption is about 2.7% and petroleum products contribute by only 1.4%. The annual consumption of LPG for the year 1999 was estimated at 33000 TOE. The highest percentage of commercial energy in the households energy balance was found in Khartoum State; in which electricity represent 18% of the consumed energy and the petroleum products 6% for the energy balance of this sector. (NEA 2001)

The prolonged drought and desertification caused by wide spread deforestation in the Sudan combined with inequity of income distribution and rapid population growth lowered the productivity of land, reduced animal production and decreased food production. Ultimately the environmental crisis lead to the economic crisis manifested in loss of social security and displacement from the affected areas (particularly Darfur and Kordufan), to the capital cities.

The consumption of fuel wood in the Sudan exceeded the actual demands due to inefficiency and waste because of the following

• The use of wet wood releases less energy.
• Efficiency of conversion from wood to charcoal is less than 16%.
• 20% of the charcoal remains behind in the form of chips and charcoal dust.
• Cooking stoves are only 10% efficient.

The Sunt (Acacia nilotica) forests along the Blue Nile are considered as one of the most important sources for fuel wood and other wood products. During the 1980s this decline was detected in high value plantations as long occurrence of decline increase followed a major flood in 1988, which deposited up to two meters of silt in some plantations. The plantations are the country’s primary source of railroad sleepers and fuel wood and the decline is considered to be the most important forest health problem in the Sudan. The outlook towards the future is rather grim if corrective actions were not undertaken, else the whole Sudan would be converted into desert.

The inefficiency in addition to deforestation led to acute energy crisis, which will affect household livelihood as well as other sectors of the economy. In the light of the global concern on the environment manifested in the many environmental conventions and protocols in order to provide energy necessary for development and household and to assure sustainable forests production. Sudan is looking for alternative sources of energy to substitute and complement biomass energy. For the Sudan there are many alternatives to solve the energy problem, among which are petroleum fuels such as LPG and kerosene, which were imported in the past and the government controlled the supply due to the scarcity of foreign currency.

With the recent exploitation of petroleum, the supply of oil products has been increasing and is expected to increase further as more oil is produced. Demand for fuel is expected to fall as alternative forms of energy become available. It is expected that many sectors in the economy will shift to sources other than wood fuel. It is already observed that consumption of wood fuel in the big cities) is decreasing. The readily available LPG fuel at lower prices than before might have induced the change. This is hoped to have an impact on slowing the rate of deforestation if relevant policies encouraging the use of alternative energy sources are formulated. This needs quantitative information on the consumption behavior and the responses expected to the changing conditions and their effects on forestry and forests products

The paper aims to achieve consumption patterns for Khartoum, Sinner, Blue Nile and Darfur states as a case study. We concern about the Household consumption only and the population growth as a main consumer in this sector, also to estimate the future energy consumption by predicted the energy consumption for the year to come.

2. Energy Supply

2.1. Energy supply Problem

Sudan has experienced prolonged periods of energy shortage after the 1973 fuel price boom. Here we attempted to outline the magnitude of the energy crisis and the long term effects of energy policies on the already damaged environment and troubled economy. We also attempted to provide rational alternative solutions that can be economically, environmentally and socially acceptable.

With increasing shortage and increasing population households depended on wood-based sources to satisfy their needs of energy. As a result of the fuel wood problem FAO published a map of the fuel wood condition in many developing countries

FAO’s Forestry Department was monitoring the changing pattern of fuel wood supply and demand in many developing countries. This made it possible to identify areas of critical current shortage and those of future expected shortages, so as to be able to recommend what kinds of projects are needed for correction. (FAO, 1984).

Because the Sudan was considered one of the 25 most seriously affected developing countries by the shortage of fuel wood, many projects were implemented including ‘The Community Forestry for Shelter”, “Environment control and energy” executed by United Nation Sudano-Sahilain Office (UNSO) beside others which were for management of existing forest-tree planting, funded by Netherlands (FAO, 1984).

The shortage of petrol implies that pollution problems from this source are diminishing, as people turn to wood and charcoal. However, the consequences of deforestation become more severe and also the loss of fertilizers when biomass is used as a substitute. It has been estimated that household energy consumption is responsible for 92% of all deforestation in Sudan, and therefore, largely responsible for the consequences of soil deterioration and lack of fodder. (Whitney1981)

The urgency of the problem of ecological imbalance in the Sudan is well known to the authorities. Because energy problems affect all sectors, Sudan National Energy Plan 1985 –2000 put forward the following objective: “provide a long term sustainable supply of wood to meet the needs of the population at an affordable cost, while preserving the ecology of the Sudan” (NEA, 1985). A strategy to attain these objectives according to (NEA) plan includes

1. Increasing the supply through maintaining the existing forests.
2. Establishing new forests and expanding supply source.
3. Decreasing demand through increasing the efficiency of the wood stoves,
4. Improving the efficiency of the charcoal production process
5. And increasing the consumption of economically more attractive alternatives.
6. The effect of the new strategies Based on the assumed achievement of:

• 5% of irrigated land will be converted to trees.
• Planting an average of 1.7 millionfeddands by forests annually on existing bare rain-fed land.
• Increase the productivity of the existing forests by 25%. Improve, especially via better charcoal stoves, so that within five years demand will be 16% lower than currently projected.

The Plan concluded that:-The Sudan is capable of slowing down the decline of its forests and the widespread use of wood and charcoal as a fuel and for other purposes. The best that could be achieved would be to slow down the pace of decline and intensify reforestation in the years to come.

Many Solutions suggested:

FAO, Contributed to solve the problem by making determined efforts to improve fuel wood situation.

The Sudan Renewable Energy Project “SREP” began work on improved charcoal metal stoves in 1983. Laboratory and field tests showed the stove to be 39% more efficient than the traditional metal stove. This stove was acceptable in normal cooking practices beside it is cheaper and uses even small pieces of charcoal that used to be wasted (Ali, 1984).

2-2- Forests are the main source of energy in Sudan:-

The forests of Sudan have economical, ecological, and recreational values, known collectively as ecosystem services. Wood products from the forestry sector include fuel wood, sawn timber and round poles. The Forest Product Consumption Survey conducted by the FNC in Northern Sudan in 1995 found that the total annual consumption of wood was 15.77 million m3.

The ecological benefits of forests include sand dune stabilization in fragile semi-desert environments, amelioration of soil through nitrogen fixation, and the provision of natural ecosystems for wildlife and the conservation of biodiversity.

Also the gum Arabic belt play significant role which reflected in it accommodation approximately one-fifth of the population of Sudan, and two-thirds of its livestock, and that it acts as a natural barrier to protect more than 40% of the total area of Sudan from desert encroachment.

2.3. Firewood and charcoal production

The felling of trees for fuel wood and charcoal production occurs throughout Sudan, but the pressure is generally greater on the more limited resources of the north and the areas surrounding the country’s urban centers. An additional growing use for fuel wood in all parts of Sudan is for brick-making. In Darfur, for instance, brick making provides a livelihood for many IDP camp residents, but also contributes to severe localized deforestation. (FNC annual Reports 2005-2011)

Table (1) Fuel wood production (2006-2011)

charcoal (Tone) / Firewood (m3) / Year
56,150 / 320,172 / 2005
27,665 / 641,038 / 2006
29,860 / 199,498 / 2007
50,383 / 594,958 / 2008
51,308 / 256,911 / 2009
60,642 / 276,760 / 2010
13,966 / 215,650 / 2011

Source: Forests National Corporation annual reports

Grazing round riverin forest

Most of the reserve forests were dominated by Acacia species and followed by Balanitsaegyptica. Among exotic species, Eucalyptus microtheca was planted on rehabilitation sites, which is drought tolerant spp. Some of Acacia spp. dominated in the forest reserve included: Acacia nilotica, Acacia Senegal and Acacia seyal, A. nilotica dominated along the river embankment and irrigation scheme This tree species is also the most important for traditional medicine, for instance for treating chough, animal feed and source of tannins The forest reserve has been serves as shade for livestock (e.g. Mellia spp., Neem tress, Delonexregaspp.),

A wide range of forests and vegetation types are found in Sudan due to regional variations The most important types are distributed from the arid north to the tropical south: are:

a)Desert and semi-desert trees and shrubs:-

The forest resources in the desert and semi-desert northern states are extremely limited and in continual decline.

b)Riverine forests:-

They are a critical resource for the northern states. They occupy the flooded lands when rivers rise in the latter part of the wet season. Acacia nilotica– the dominant species is found as pure dense stands over large areas from the Egyptian border in the north to as far south as Jebelein on the White Nile, and Roseires on the Blue Nile. The species also occurs along the Dinder and Rahad rivers. In less frequently flooded basins along the Atbara River and in some inland sites, Acacia niloticais replaced by Hyphaenethebaica(Dom palm) forests

c)Low rainfall (< 900 - 1,000 mm) woodland savannah

1. Sandy soils dominate in the west and central regions,
2. clay soils are prevalent in the east and south. In the drier parts, trees are nearly all thorny and low in stature, with a predominance of acaciaspecies. Broadleaved deciduous trees become prevalent in the wetter parts, but there is not as great a variety of species as in the high rainfall woodland savannah, and thorn trees are usually present.
3. The gum Arabic belt lies within this zone. The belt occupies an area of 520,000 km2 between the latitudes of 10° and 14° N, accounting for one-fifth of the total area of the country.

d)Montane and gallery forests

Mountains in Sudan are characterized by higher rainfall, resulting in different and more robust woodlands than in the surrounding areas. (FNC annual Report)

2.4. Change in Forest Cover (1990 – 2011)

Between the years 1990- 2009Sudan lost about 8.4% of its forest cover or around 6,450,000 hectare. (76.4to 69. 95 million hectare)

Sudan's forests contain 1,393 million metric tons of carbon in living forest biomass

2.4.1. Sudan forests 2011

Table (2) vegetation cover of Sudan Before separation (June 2011)

Area/ million/ km2 / % / vegetation Cover/Million / %
North of Sudan / 188.2 / 75.3% / 51.96 / 32%
South of Sudan / 61.8 / 24.7% / 109.62 / 68%
Sudan / 250.00 / 100 / 161.58 / 100%

Table (3) Compression between Forests (North and South) of Sudan 2011

Compression / North Forests / South Forests
type of forest / Protective / Productive Forests
average Tree density/ feddan / 150 -300 tree per feddan / 300 -500 tree per feddan
Reservation
Total No. of forests / 3225 / 63
area/ million feddan / 25.13 / 4.66
% from total area / 4.13% / 0.77%

Table (4) Sudan land cover after separation (2011)

Land Cover / Area of Sudan / Feddans / Area of Sudan /hectare / %
Forests Cover / 51,960 / 21,832 / 11.5%
Agriculture / 67,240 / 28,252 / 15%
Range Land / 117,950 / 49,559 / 26%
Bare Land / 214,200 / 90,000 / 47%
Water / 762 / 320 / 0%
Total / 452,112 / 189,963 / 100%

Source: Forests strategy 2011-2016

Table (5) the effects of separation in the Forests of Sudan

Changes / From / To / Observations
Percentage of forest cover / 29.4% / 11.6% / Shift to low forests cover countries
Annual rate of removal (90% in the Norrth) / 2.5% / 0.74% / Countries with the highest removal of forest in the world
Average annual growth rate (million m3) / 11 / 10 / Low rate of growth due to high removal
Average rate of annual allowable cut (million cubic meters) / 11 / Less than 10 / increasethe growth rate by increasing the cultivated areas or improve the management of natural forests.
Green area per capita in feddan / 1.68 / Because of decreasing forest area and increase the population
averagedensityof tree/ Fadden / 400 – 700 / 200 -500 / Decrease in density due to over-cutting. Density can be increased through Technical Department

2.5. Forests Problems

Expansion of mechanized rain-fed cultivation with other factors was causing considerable desertification in the Sudan, which leads to more shortages in biomass energy. Unless strict control is exercised in the dry Savannah. Control is not merely through soil and vegetation conservation, but also the adaptation of land use compatible with the ecological conditions to ensure sustained productivity. Ibrahim, (1984).

2.5.1. Desertification and Drought:-

Desertification is land degradation in arid and semi-arid and sub-humid as aresult of many factors, including climate variability and human activities.

1. Natural factors, namely fluctuations in rainfall and repeat the cycles of drought
2. Human activities, overgrazing, which is one of the important causes of cat trees and deforestation, fires, intentional, indiscriminate and excessive in agriculture.

The decertified areas in Sudan, is running from east to west between latitudes 10 and 18 degrees north.

Desertification has negative effects, including low land productivity and increasing poverty among rural, beside the displacement and migration in and outside the country and swelling slums and slums around the cities, which leads to poor social systems and social disintegration, family and the deterioration of security conditions and the outbreak of conflict and armed robbery (as Darfur case )

and also there are environmental impacts negatively include increased drought and the worsening of the problem (global warming) leads to high temperatures result of the removal of vegetation and increase the proportion of dust and storms and in the effects of negative health problems due to higher frequency of dust storms and environmental degradation and poor nutrition

The drought may lead to serious environmental disasters, Drought occurs when the average annual rainfall is less than the amount of water that can be lost through evaporation and transpiration. Drought may affect the ecosystem and agriculture area. The short period of severe drought capable to inflicting massive damage and inflict losses in the domestic economy