REDUCING STEREOTYPE THREAT: THE EFFECT OF AFFIRMATION INTERVENTION ON STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES
Except where reference is made to the work of others, the work described in this project is my own or was done in collaboration with my Advisor. This project does not include proprietary or classified information.
______
Chance M. Giddens
Certificate of Approval:
______
Donald R. Livingston, Ed.D[MSOffice1]
Associate Professor and Co-Project Advisor
Education Department
REDUCING STEREOTYPE THREAT: THE EFFECT OF AFFIRMATION INTERVENTION ON STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES
A project submitted
by
Chance M. Giddens
to
LaGrangeCollege
in partial fulfillment of
the requirement for the
degree of
SPECIALIST IN EDUCATION
in
Curriculum and Instruction
LaGrange, Georgia
July 4, 2011
Abstract
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………...iii
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………....iv
List of Tables and Figures[MSOffice2]………………………………………………………………....v
Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………………………………………………1
Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………….#
Significance of the Problem……………………………………………………….#
Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks………………………………………….#
Focus Questions…………………………………………………………………...#
Overview of Methodology………………………………………………………...#
Human as Researcher……………………………………………………………...#
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature……………………………………………………….#
Chapter 3: Methodology…………………………………………………………………..#
Research Design…………………………………………………………………...#
Setting……………………………………………………………………………..#
Sample / Subjects / Participants…………………………………………………...#
Procedure and Data Collection Methods………………………………………….#
Validity and Reliability Measures………………………………………………...#
Analysis of Data…………………………………………………………………..#
Chapter 4: Results…………………………………………………………………………#
Chapter 5: Analysis and Discussion of Results……………………………………………#
Analysis……………………………………………………………………………#
Discussion………………………………………………………………………...#
Implications……………………………………………………………………….#
Impact on Student Learning………………………………………………………#
Recommendations for Future Research…………………………………………..#
References…[MSOffice3]……………………………………………………………………………..#
Appendixes……………………………………………………………………………….#
CHAPTER ONE-INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
This study explores how reducing stereotype threat amongst African American high school students will affect their scores on the Georgia High School Graduation Test in social studies. Minority students underperform their counterparts in the majority population on nearly all measures of learning. From standardized test scores to grade point average to graduation rates, there is an “achievement gap” between Black and White students in the United States. Bifulco (2007) notes that “among the most persistent issues in American education are the racial segregation of students and the achievement gap between black and white students” (p. 1). The problem is, in fact, a national one. Though socioeconomic status also has stratification, with high SES individuals consistently outperforming low SES individuals, the most common factor in the achievement gap is race. As Bali (2004) states “the ‘race gap,’ usually studied as the difference between Black and White students’ achievement scores, clearly and repeatedly arises across the nation” (p. 1). In light of this evidence, this study seeks to answer the following research question: Will reducing stereotype threat among African American students result in higher standardized test scores for them?
Significance of the Problem
If the achievement gap between black and white students is not narrowed, the ramifications will continue to be far-reaching. Left unabated, the gap will ensure that schools cannot meet Adequate Yearly Progress as proscribed in No Child Left Behind as graduation rates forminorities, often the most important part of the equation for overall graduation rate (a central component of AYP),will continue to decrease. Beyond immediate concerns, the long-range denouement can be nothing other than a further entrenchment of what has become generational poverty. Previous research has suggested that skills reflected in test-score performance on tests such as the Armed Forces Qualification Test (AFQT) can account for some of the racial differences in average wages (Blackburn, 2004). To put it simply, less academic achievement translates into less earning power for the individual, or, in this case, the group. The academic achievement gap is a reality that impedes social and economic advancement for the African American family. In order to strengthen the African American family via academic achievement and educational attainment, the amelioration of the gap must be a primary goal of the educational establishment (Leach, 2007).
Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks
This study is germane to the LaGrange College Education Department’s Conceptual Framework (2008) in three important ways. Tenet 1 states that when “teachers implement the principles of constructivism in their teacher preparation programs, they transform their candidates and stimulate them to develop their own personal understandings of constructivism” (pg. 3). The idea of stereotype threat is rooted deeply in the social constructivist view that learning has many outside factors influencing it; that education does not happen “in a vacuum.” Central to this overarching philosophy is a critical theory view regarding education and how the group holding power determines, in effect, the educational achievement of the group that does not. The fact that low SES students in general and African American students in particular are outside the power structure and are thusly affected by outside forces over which they have no control is an important context of this study. Students who have internalized the popular myth that their particular group has less academic acumen than other groups are bound to “live down” to that stereotype. Jost and Banaji, as cited by Spencer (2007), posit the notion that System Justification Theory suggests “members of both high and low status groups are motivated to maintain the status quo and legitimize the existing social structures through the use of stereotypes, whether positive or negative” (p. 38). Furthermore, because critical theory holds that transmission of education is not “value free,” the dominant group within society determines what values are transmitted. By reducing stereotype threat this study is designed to help students not only overcome an artificial barrier but also to help them navigate their world by having a deeper, critical view of it.
The goal of this study aligns nicely with Tenet 2 of the Conceptual Framework insofar that “we believe that learning is mostly an affective, dramatic, and emotional event and that it requires learners to construct new connections” (p. 5). That is, for a critical understanding of the world around them, students must take an active role in their education. The best way to do this is to connect their education to the world around them. The implementation of avenues to overcome stereotype threat will be an emotional exercise. Only by confronting externalities that serve as impediments to learning, however, will students be able to excise them. In so doing, the idea that the brain, much like a muscle, will grow when exercised will allow students to construct those new connections.
Tenet 3 of the Conceptual Framework asserts that “through action research, positive classroom practices, and on-going research in school communities, candidates can affect policies and practices around them” (p. 8). The reason for this study is to affect the lives of children in a real and long-term way. Teaching children mechanisms to reduce stereotype threat will lead to positive outcomes in both school and the real world.
Further, this study is aligned with the theoretical and conceptual underpinnings of the Five Elements of the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education 2000 Standard I for Initial Programs. The Five National Board for Professional Teaching Standards Core Propositions for Experienced Teachers, specifically Proposition 5, that teachers are members of learning communities, is reflected in this study as well.
Focus Questions
This study is guided by three focus questions. Question one explores the quantitative effect of the study and is concerned with the overarching research question, namely how reducing stereotype threat will impact student achievement on standardized exams. Question two explores the effect on student perception when presented with affirmation intervention and is designed to glean pertinent information from the students affected. From a pedagogical perspective, question three investigates how the study will affect the culture of the school as seen through an administrative lens.
The three focus questions are:
- Will reducing stereotype threat amongst black students in eleventh grade government classes result in a markedly better score for this group on the Georgia High School Graduation Test in social studies? What effect will critical theory views have on this subgroup’s achievement?
- How will black students respond to a campaign specifically designed to increase achievement on standardized tests? How will reducing stereotype threat affect test scores for black students?
- How will school leaders feel about the processes used to reduce stereotype threat with regards to the stated goals of the school improvement plan for social studies? How will this study affect future course offerings and/or placement of teachers with regards to remediation?
Overview of Methodology
In Comparative Education, Arnove (2003) suggests that “the goal of comparative education has been to contribute to theory building; to the formulation of generalizable propositions about the working of school systems and their interactions with their surrounding economies, politics, cultures, and social orders “(p. 86). This study is centered on the comparative approach of reducing stereotype threat.
This study will be conducted in three sections of 11th grade government at TroupCountyComprehensiveHigh School. The male to female ratio will be equal with a preponderance of students in a low SES level. The students will be exposed to various methods to reduce stereotype threat prior to the Georgia High School Graduation Test in social studies.
The study will utilize both quantitative and qualitative measures of assessment. Quantitatively, a Likert scale questionnaire and a dependent t-test to examine pre and post test results between and amongst Black and White students will be implemented in response to focus question one. Students will be given an exam similar to the GHSGT in social studies prior to stereotype reduction methods being implemented. Once stereotype reduction methods have been implemented, students will take both a post-test and the GHSGT in social studies. Qualitatively, the study will utilize surveys and interviews. Students will be given surveys to assess how they felt about the methods used in response to focus question two. Similarly, administrators will be interviewed to assess their feelings about both the efficacy of the procedure and the results thereof in response to focus question three.
Human as Researcher
In my ten years in front of the classroom, I have taught many different courses within the social studies curriculum from remedial social studies to AP European History. In that time I have seen first-hand the achievement gap in play. As a member of the School Improvement Team (or varying iterations thereof) for all ten years, I have been privy to data that proves the achievement gap between the races is not only pervasive, but growing. As a social scientist, I am also keenly aware of historical factors that continue to play a part in the achievement gap. As a parent, I’m concerned with how this gap, if left unattended to, will affect the country my children inherit. Reducing stereotype threat to narrow the achievement gap meshes my experiences, knowledge, and desires in a research-based approach that I hope will prove fruitful.
Table 3.1 Data Shell[MSOffice4]
Focus Question / Literature Sources / Type of Method and Data / Why these data provide valid data / How these data are analyzed / Rationale / Strengths/ WeaknessesWill reducing stereotype threat amongst black students in eleventh grade government classes result in a markedly better score for this group on the Georgia High School Graduation Test in social studies? / Grimsley, M. (2000)
Ipka, V. (2003)
Ziomek-Daigle, J. (2009) / Method:
assessment,
Data:
quantitative / Dependent T Test, Independent T Test (comparing GHSGT scores in social studies from SY 09/10 to those in SY 10/11 for whole groups and for black and white sub-groups.)
How will black students respond to a campaign specifically designed to increase achievement on standardized tests? / Olszewski-Kubilius, P. (2006)
Vohs, K. (2009) / Method:
Survey
Data:
interval / Survey,
Likert scale results examined via Chi Square
How will school leaders feel about the processes used to reduce stereotype threat with regards to the stated goals of the school improvement plan for social studies? / Aber, M. (2007) / Method:
Interview, focus group, reflection
Data:
interval / Coded for themes
CHAPTER TWO—LITERATURE REVIEW
This study focuses on three research questions: Will reducing stereotype threat amongst black students in eleventh grade government classes result in a markedly better score for this group on the Georgia High School Graduation Test in social studies? How will black students respond to a campaign specifically designed to increase achievement on standardized tests? How will school leaders feel about the processes used to reduce stereotype threat with regards to the stated goals of the school improvement plan for social studies? To imbue the study with the proper credentials, research and review of available literature concerning each question was undertaken.
Stereotype threat arises when members of a group internalize negative connotations about said group with regards to completion of or excelling at specific tasks. This negativity is manifested by a fear of reinforcing the negative stereotype. Black high school students exhibit stereotype threat in the face of meeting or exceeding state-mandated “cut-off” scores on standardized exams. The stark achievement gap between the races on these types of assessments lends credence to the theory. To reduce stereotype threat, then, is to narrow the achievement gap.
Affirmation intervention techniques have been used in various guises in numerous studies in an effort to disabuse[MSOffice5] black students of the notion they are incapable of academic achievement. The task is all the more difficult when confronted with the stark reality that the achievement gap first arises in the primary grades. Poor starts causing an early achievement gap often result in an exponential growth of the gap with grade-to-grade progression (Chapin, 2007). Couple the knowledge that many black students carry with them about past performance with the trepidation all adolescents have for assessments of any kind and underperformance because of stereotype threat becomes an all too-real possibility. As the NationalCenter for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance found (REL 2009–No. 076), “Although a test-taking situation may seem objectively the same for all students, some students, because of their social identity, may experience it in a very different way” (p. 2).
Focus Question One
What then to engender positivity in black test takers? Use of instruments designed to assess student perceptions of race and the achievement gap is a necessity. One-on-one conversations, group discussions, surveys, questionnaires, and fostering an environment of trust in conjunction with or because of the use of such techniques have proven successful (Bruce, 2009). Group dynamics in this sense are a positive. The negative group dynamic, the one that gives rise to stereotype threat, can and must be overcome. Using affirmation intervention techniques can mitigate the negative group dynamic by replacing it with a positive group dynamic through relationship building within and across the group.
To this end, an effort to re-educate the student about educational attainment is of paramount importance. Students who have all too often had negative experiences in school need to be taught that school can and should be a positive experience. And while it is true that different kinds of students may require different pedagogies of improvement (Steele, 1999), it is also true that all students can benefit from learning about the malleable nature of the human brain and its capacities. Teaching students that their mind is like a muscle—that it becomes stronger or “smarter” with exercise—can lead to improved performance across any number of educational assessments (Aronson, 2004). Such interventions can ultimately lead to success outside the schoolhouse as well. Serna (1998) posits that “Ultimately, teachers may be able to teach social/resiliency/self-determination skills so that children can advocate for themselves and exhibit behaviors that promote independence and success in school, family, and community settings” (p. 49). Thus, improving the self-perception of the student can improve test scores, graduation rates, and life-long earning potential for the student.
Beyond discussions about and lessons devoted to learning potential, though, other affirmation intervention techniques are needed to help reduce stereotype threat. Affirmation intervention can be both teacher-directed and student (or self) directed. By understanding motivational urges and how to harness self-control, self affirmation is sure to follow (Schmeichel, 2009). As stereotype threat afflicts members of a group, group affirmation is also important to reduce the threat. Peer support is invaluable to these ends (Olszewski-Kubilius, 2006). When students can point to another who is, ostensibly, just like themselves but different in that the other has attained educational success, students can begin to imagine themselves matching said achievement. Furthermore, parental involvement in the affirmation intervention is of paramount importance (Darling, 2008). Frequent contact with the parent by the teacher in a concerted effort to improve the student’s self-worth and self-perception of ability on regimented educational tasks leads to improved performance. Beyond this, the counselors of the school should be engaged in similar efforts (Brigman, 2007).
What then of actual classroom instruction? Research indicates that specific reading and writing tasks work to reduce stereotype threat. The use of authentic reading materials has shown to be effective to this end. When students are allowed to read materials that are at their reading level and in an area of interest to them, educational awareness and, most importantly, self esteem are raised (Erickson, 2008). When Black students are allowed to write about their values and interests, there tends to be an improvement in achievement as well (Cohen, 2009).
Labeling, though, is perhaps most important in this area. Just as stereotype threat affects performance on assessments, labeling bias does as well. When tests are labeled in different ways, it affects performance on them (Jencks, 1998). By describing a test as a measure of intelligence, for example, the instructor may be unwittingly setting his Black students up for failure. Even if the test measures intelligence quotient, labeling it as something else improves the performance of minority students (Sackett, 2004). To reduce stereotype threat one must be cognizant of these findings. Focused lessons that are attuned to both group dynamics and individual perceptions of ability must be employed along with the focused efforts of parents and counselors to do the same.