Grammar Module Three: Punctuation and Capitalization
- The Period, Semicolon, Colon, Dash
- The Comma
- Punctuating Quotations
- Capitalization
I. The Period (also known as the Full Stop)
1. Use a period at the end of a sentence.
2. Use a period after an abbreviation, when the abbreviation does not end with the last letter of the word. So:
etc. Jan. Feb. Nov. Weds. Mon. Tues.
You do not need a period after an abbreviation when the abbreviation ends with the last letter of the word. So:
Mr Mrs Dr St (for street or saint) Rd Ave
However, many people find it easier to just think "abbreviation = period at the end of the word" and put periods after allabbreviations. This is also acceptable and common:
Mr. Mrs. Dr. St. Rd. Ave.
The Semicolon
1. Use a semicolon between two independent clauses when you want to join them together and make a compound sentence.
The French made grave mistakes during this time; Moltke made justas many serious errors.
2. Use a semicolon between lengthy items in a series, where usingcommas to separate the items results in confusion.
In the following sentence, three reasons why tourists avoided New York City in the 1970s are given. The reasons are separated by semicolons:
Tourists avoided New York in the 1970s for several reasons: they considered it unclean; parts of the cityincluding a large section of the subway system, were unsafe; and accommodation at a reasonably comfortable hotel was very expensive.
The Colon
The colon directs the reader's attention to what follows. What can follow a colon is fairly wide-ranging:
- an individual item or series of items
The emergence of the paperback brought several change to the publishing industry: sales increased, mass marketing became more important, and royalty regulations had to be altered.
- an example illustrating or explaining the idea contained in the preceding clause
Hardcovers are now very expensive: the average price of a hardcover novel is $34.95.
Usually there is an independent clause (complete sentence) before the colon. A common mistake is to use a colon to introduce a list when there is no complete sentence preceding it.
Incorrect: The paperback can be: carried easily, printed cheaply, and thrown away.
Correct:The paperback can be carried easily, printed cheaply, and thrown away.
Correct: The paperback has many advantages over the hardcover: it can be carried easily, printed
cheaply, and thrown away.
The Dash
Use dashes sparinly in formal, academic writing. If another punctuation mark will do, use that.
1. Use a dash to indicate a sudden shift in direction. Sometimes, you may have a phrase which contradicts or negates what has gone before, and a dash is a useful way of drawing the reader's attention to that contradiction.
Teachers can win over their students with tactics of affection - or of terror.
2. Occasionally, you may want to ask a question or make an exclamation in the middle of a sentence. A dash permits you to accomplish thisengineering feat of punctuation.
Students dread these lectures - who would not? - but they attend every week.
Web Link: Exercise 1 The Period, Semi-Colon, Colon, Dash
II. The Comma
In general, don't use a comma unless you have a reason for it. Commas are used to help your reader to understand what you are trying to say, by separating or setting off a part of a sentence. "Rules" about comma use vary from place to place and from style book to style book. The following are Seven Rules we have distilled, which, if you master them, should stand you in good stead for academic and other kinds of writing.
1. Use a comma to separate two independent clauses when they are joined by for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so ("fanboys"). An independent clause is a group of words that can stand alone as a sentence.
What I say can make a difference, but what I write canchange the world.
Canadians could ask that the CBC be abolished, or theycould choose to support it.
If the two clauses are really short, fewer than about five words, the commas can be omitted.
Bakers sell bread and greengrocers sell produce.
2. Use a comma to separate items in a series.
Rowboats, canoes, kayaks, and other motorless watercraft are welcome.
Putting a comma before the "and" that indicates the last item in the series is optional.Therefore, the following is also correct:
Rowboats, canoes, kayaks and other motorless watercraft are welcome.
When including a date or an address in your sentence, treat it as a series, and put a comma after every item, even the last:
He was born on May 17, 1957, in London, England, and grew up there.
When you are writing only the month and year, the commas can be omitted.
In September 2010 she moved to Nova Scotia.
3. Use a comma to separate an introductory element from rest of the sentence. This element can be a word, phrase, or subordinate clause.
However, cookbooks predating the 19th century are scarce.
By the turn of the century, the more advanced cookbooks showed evidence of the interest in domestic
science.
Because refrigerated freight cars made the transportation of produce possible, Canadian cuisine
became more varied.
Web Link: Exercise 2 The Comma Rules 1-3
4. Put commas around an expression such as however, moreover, therefore, of course, I think, indeed, etc., that interrupts a sentence midway through. These expressions are considered extraneous to primary meaning of the sentence.
I think, however, that you are wrong.
She thought, moreover, that you would agree with her.
The early Canadian attitude toward skating, nevertheless, upheld traditional beliefs about women in this era.
5. Put commas around non-essential modifiers, also known as non-restrictive modifiers.This rule is related to rule 4 above, but rather than referring to expressions of one or two words, it dealswith longer material. In a sentence, a non-essential or non-restrictivemodifier may be interesting, but the primary meaning of the sentence would be clear without it.
John Wayne, whom I liked immensely, died in 1990.
"Whom I liked immensely" is not essential to the primary meaning of the sentence. Without it, the sentence would read:
John Wayne died in 1990.
Therefore, the non-essential material or restrictive modifier is set off from the rest of the sentence by commas to show that it could left out.
(There are also restrictive modifiers, which may look like non-restrictive modifiers but are not. Consider this sentence:
Women who chose to wear bloomers were accused of wanting to be like men.
The modifier "who chose to wear bloomers" is essential to the primary meaning of the sentence. Without it, the sentence would read:
Women were accused of wanting to belike men.
This sentence sounds like all women were accused. The modifier"who chose to wear bloomers" is essential because it tells us which women the sentence is about. It is an essential or non-restrictive modifier and it is not sent off from the rest of the sentence with commas.)
Rule 5 Summary:
Non-essential or non-restrictive modifier = set off by commas:
My sister, who likes the cold, is spending a year working up north.
Essential or restrictive modifier = no commas:
My sister who likes the cold is spending a yearworking up north; my sister who doesn't is planning to visit her in July.
6. Put a comma before a concluding element if the concluding element is considered non-essential.
Fancy skating eventually emerged as an appropriate sportfor women, allowing them to maintain a feminine image.
7. Put commas around the name of a person spoken to or addressed.
I think, Erin, that you are absolutely right.
This rarely, if ever, happens in academic writing, so this rule is more fyi than anything else. It might occur in a formal letter or email when you want to directly address the person to whom you are writing.
Web Link: Exercise 3 The Comma Rules 4-7
III. Punctuating Quotations
1. If you work the quotation into the structure of your sentence, no introductory or additional punctuation is necessary.
The bodies of the natives were not painted in brilliant colours but rather "in the subdued colours provided by earth and rock."
2. If you use attributory words, words that identify the speaker or thewriterand a verb of saying (says, writes, observes, notes etc), use commas to set off these words, whether they appear before, after, or between parts of the quotation.
McKenzie reports, "The reproductive capacity of the bluewhale was the lowest of all baleen species."
"The reproductive capacity of the blue whale," McKenzie reports, "was the lowest of all baleen species."
"The reproductive capacity of the blue whale was thelowest of all baleen species," McKenzie reports.
3. If you precede your quotation with an independent clause orcomplete sentence, use a colon to introduce the quotation.
Hedley Bull is quite clear on this point: "We are accustomed, in the modern world, to contrast war between states with peace between states, but the historical alternative to war between states was more ubiquitous violence."
IV. Capitalization
Capitalize the following.
1. The first word of every sentence.
2. The first first word of a quotation, when introduced by someone's name and a verb of attribution (eg. says, asks, writes, observes, notes).
Woolf writes, "The wonder is that I 've any clothes on my back."
"How did one judge people, think of them?" Lily asks.
3. The words in a title except for short prepositions (to, at, on, by, about etc.), short connecting words, or a, an, the, when the title appears in the text of the paper. For titles appearing in parenthetical citations or in the reference section of a paper, consult the rules of the reference style your are following for that paper:
MLA, APA, Chicago style, or others.
To the Lighthouse
A Room of One's Own
4. Proper nouns, that is the specific names of people, places, languages, ethnicities, nationalities, or words derived from them, such as Marxism from the name Marx.
Uncle SamIreland LatinLatina Irish
5. Names of months, days of the week and holidays.
March Thursday Labour DayThanksgiving
6. A title of relationship if it takes the place or is used as a person's name.
Mum Dad Grandpa Aunt Jane
No capital is necessary if the relationship is just being identified.
my mother my father my grandfather
7. People's titles when used in conjunction with their names, but not otherwise.
Dr Veri was called in for consultation.
Another doctor was called in.
They sailed along the St. Lawrence River.
They sailed along the river.
I go to TrentUniversity.
I go to university.
8. Periods of time when the reference is to a specifichistorical era that has been given a name.
the Age of Reason the Middle Ages the Renaissance
the Reformation the Enlightenment the Depression
Web Link: Exercise 4 Capitalization