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THEWELL-BEINGOFMARYLANDPARENTSANDTHEIR CHILDREN: DIFFERENCESBYINCOME STATUSAND FAMILYSTRUCTURE

ByRichardWertheimer,Ph.D.,KristinAndersonMoore,Ph.D.,andJordanKahn,B.A. May2009

OVERVIEW

Whencompared withtheir higher-incomecounterparts, onaverage, parents inlow-incomeMaryland families(thatis,thosewith incomesthatarelessthantwicetheofficialpovertythreshold)1 havelessad- vantageousenvironmentsforraisingchildren,andboththeparentsandtheirchildrenexperiencefewer positiveoutcomes.Similarly,whencomparedwiththeircounterpartsinfamiliesheadedbytwobiological oradoptiveparents,familiesheadedbysinglemothersare associatedwithlessadvantageous environ- mentsforraisingchildrenandfewerpositiveoutcomesforbothparentsandchildren.Whenfamilystruc- tureandincomearejointlytakenintoaccount,familycircumstancesandchildoutcomesareoftendra- maticallydifferent.

BACKGROUND

ResearchstudiesbasedonstatisticsfortheUnitedStatesasawholehavedocumenteddifferencesinchild and familywell-beingbetweenchildreninlow-incomefamiliesand childreninmoreaffluentfamilies2and betweenchildreninsingle-parentfamiliesandchildrenintwo-parentfamilies.3However,researchershave notexploreddifferences inwell-being inthesefamiliesatthestatelevelbecauseofalackofstate-level data. TheNationalSurveyofChildren’sHealth(NSCH)providesrepresentative dataatboththenational andstatelevelsonseveralimportantareas (ordomains)ofparentalandfamilyfunctioningandwell-being. ChildTrendsdrewonthesedatafor2003toanalyzedifferencesinwell-being byfamilyincomeandfam- ilystructureinMaryland,thusillustratingtherichnessofthisnewsourceofstatisticalinformation. This ResearchBriefpresentsour findings.

Our analysesfocusedon childandfamilywell-beinginfivedifferentdomains:

• Parentcharacteristics4andwell-being;

• Parentingandfamilyprocesses;

• Child’senvironment;

• Child’sactivities;and

• Child’shealthandwell-being

Althoughwefoundthat mostchildrenandtheir parentsinMarylandarefunctioningwell inmostdomains, significantdifferencesexistinmanyimportantmeasuresofchildandfamilywell-beingbetweenchildren andtheirparentsinlow-incomefamiliesandtheircounterpartsinhigher-incomefamilies.5Similarly,sig- nificantdifferencesexistinmanymeasuresofchildandfamilywell-beingbetweenchildrenandtheirpar- entsinfamiliesheadedbysinglemothersandfamiliesheadedbytwobiologicaloradoptiveparents.In particular,theoften-substantialcontrastsbetween low-incomesingle-parentandhigher-incometwo-parent familiesserveasatellingreminderofthedifficulties facedbychildreninhouseholdswithbothofthese familyrisk factors.

ABOUTTHEDATASOURCEUSEDFORTHISBRIEF

TheNationalSurveyofChildren’sHealth(NSCH)isanationaltelephonesurveyinvolving

102,353interviewscompletedbetweenJanuary2003andJuly 2004.Onechildundertheageof

18wasrandomlyselectedineachhouseholdasthesubjectofthesurvey.Theparentorguard- ianofthechild servedastherespondent.Datawere collectedbytheMaternalChild andHealth BureauincollaborationwiththeNationalCenterforHealthStatistics.Foradditionalinforma- tionaboutchildrenandfamilyhealthandwell-beingforeverystate(includingMaryland), pleasevisittheNationalSurvey of Children’sHealthDataResourceCenterat

TheresultsofChildTrends’analyses, aspresented below,arestatisticallysignificant,aftertakingaccount ofthe child’sgender,age,and race/ethnicityand the bettereducatedparent’seducationalattainment.How- ever,thepercentagesandthedifferencesthemselveshavenotbeenadjustedforthesefactors.(Itshould be notedthat, priortoimposingthesebasicdemographiccontrols,manyofthesedifferenceswerestatistically significant.)ComprehensiveresultsarepresentedinTable1 attheendof thisbrief.

PARENT CHARACTERISTICSANDWELL-BEINGINMARYLAND:KEYFINDINGS

Weexaminedfourmeasuresinthisdomain:thelevelofaggravation theparentexperienced inparenting; thestatusoftheparent’sphysicalhealth;thestatusoftheparent’smentalhealth;andthefrequency with whichtheparentexercisedregularlyor playedsports.

Low-incomevs.higher-income families.Amongsingle-motherfamilies,mothersinlow-incomefamilies wereatadisadvantageinthreeofthefourmeasuresofparentalwell-being,whencomparedwiththeir higher-income counterparts(seeFigure1)andaftercontrollingforthechild’sgender,age,andrace/ ethnicity.

•Amongsingle-motherfamilies,20percentofmothersinlow-incomefamilieswereinfairorpoor physicalhealth,comparedwith6 percentof mothersinhigher-incomefamilies.

•Similarly, amongsingle-motherfamilies,19percentofmothersinlow-incomefamilieswereinfairor poor mentalhealth,comparedwith9 percentof mothersinhigher-incomefamilies.

•About53percentofmothersinlow-incomesingle-motherfamiliesregularlyexercisedorplayedsports inthepastmonth,comparedwith67 percentof mothersinhigher-incomesingle-motherfamilies.

However,amongtwo-parentbiologicaloradoptivefamilies,parentsinlow-income familieswerenotata statisticallysignificantdisadvantage inanyofthefourmeasures,aftercontrollingforthechild’sgender, age,andrace/ethnicityandthebettereducatedparent’seducationalattainment(seeTable1).

Figure1. ParentCharacteristicsandWell-Beingof MarylandSingle-Mother Families byFamilyIncome,2003

100%

90%

80%

70%

67%

50%

53%

40%

30%

20%19%

10%6%

Parentinfair/poorphysicalhealthParentisinfair/poormentalhealthChild'smotherregularlyexercisedorplayed sportsinthepastmonth

Childreninfamilies below200%poverty

Childreninfamilies

200%ofpovertyand above

Single-mother vs.two-parentbiologicaloradoptive families.Amonglow-incomefamilies,mothers in single-mother familieswereatadisadvantageontwoofthefourmeasuresofparentalwell-being,when comparedwithparentsintwo-parentfamilies(seeTable1),aftercontrollingforthechild’sgender,age, andrace/ethnicityandthebettereducatedparent’seducationalattainment.However,amonghigher-income families, mothersinsingle-motherfamilieswereatanadvantageinoneofthefourmeasures,whencom- paredwiththemostknowledgeable parentintwo-parentfamilies,aftercontrollingforthechild’sgender, age,andrace/ethnicityandthebettereducatedparent’seducationalattainment.

•Amonglow-incomefamilies, singlemothers weremorethanthreetimesaslikely(20percent) tobein fairor poor physicalhealththanwas theparentintwo-parentfamilies(7 percent).

•Among low-incomefamilies,19 percentof singlemotherswereinfairor poor mentalhealth,compared with7 percentfor theparentintwo-parentfamilies.

•However,amonghigher-incomefamilies,67percentofsinglemothersexercisedorplayedsportsinthe pastmonth,comparedwith60 percentof theparentsintwo-parentfamilies.

PARENTINGANDFAMILY PROCESSES:KEYFINDINGS

Weexaminedfourmeasuresinthisdomain:theparentmeetingthechild’sfriends;thesettingofrulesin thefamilyaboutwhattelevisionprogramsthechildcanwatch;thechildeverhaving beenbreastfedorfed breastmilk;andthechildbeingreadtosix-to-sevendays aweekataveryyoung age.

Whenwedidnottakedemographicfactorsintoaccount,ourcomparisonsofseveralofthesemeasures

showedlow-incomefamiliestobeatadisadvantagerelativetohigher-incomefamilies,andsingle-mother familiestobeatadisadvantagerelativetotwo-parentbiologicaloradoptivefamilies.However,aftercon- trollingforthechild’sgender,age,andrace/ethnicity andthebettereducatedparent’seducationalattain- ment,we found thatthesedifferenceswereno longerstatisticallysignificant(seeTable1).

CHILD’S ENVIRONMENT(ASREPORTEDBYPARENT): KEYFINDINGS

Weexaminedthreemeasuresinthisdomain:theparent’s feeling aboutthechild’ssafety athome;thepar- ent’s feelingaboutthechild’ssafetyintheneighborhood;andthepresenceorabsenceoftobaccosmoking inthehousehold.

Low-income vs.higher-income families.Amongsingle-motherfamilies, childreninlow-incomehouse- holdswereatanadvantageinoneof thethreemeasuresof thechild’senvironment,aftercontrollingfor the child’sgender,age,andrace/ethnicity.

•AsshowninTable1,amongsingle-motherfamilies,tobaccosmokingwaslesslikelytooccurinlow- incomehouseholds (59 percent)thaninhigher-incomehouseholds (77 percent).

However,amongtwo-parentbiologicaloradoptivefamilies,wefoundnostatisticallysignificantdiffer- ences inthethree measuresofthechild’senvironmentbetweenlow-incomeandhigher-incometwo-parent biologicaloradoptive families, aftercontrollingforthechild’sgender,age,andrace/ethnicityandthebet- tereducatedparent’seducationalattainment.

Single-mother vs.two-parentbiologicaloradoptive families.Amonglow-incomefamilies,we found no statisticallysignificantdifferencesinthethreemeasuresofthechild’s environmentbetweensingle-mother andtwo-parent biologicaloradoptivefamilies,aftercontrolling forthechild’sgender,age,andrace/ ethnicityandthebettereducatedparent’seducationalattainment.However,amonghigher-incomefamilies, wefoundthat childreninsingle-motherfamilieswereatadisadvantageinoneofthethreemeasuresofthe child’senvironment,aftercontrollingforthe child’sgender,age,and race/ethnicityand the bettereducated parent’seducationalattainment.

•AsshowninTable1,amonghigher-incomefamilies,parentsintwo-parenthouseholdsweresomewhat morelikely(90percent) tofeelthattheirchildwasalwayssafeathomethanweresinglemothers (83 percent).

CHILD’S ACTIVITIES(ASREPORTEDBYPARENT): KEYFINDINGS

Weexaminedfivemeasuresinthisdomain:theparticipationoftheschool-agechildinsometypeofteam, club,oractivityduringthepast year;theinvolvementoftheschool-agechildincommunityserviceorvol- unteerworkduringthepastyear;thenumberofoutingstheveryyoungchildwastakenoninthepast week;thetimethattheschool-agechildspentcaringforhimselforherselfwithoutsupervision froman adultorolderchildduringthepastweek;andthenumberofhoursonanaverageschooldaytheschool-age childspenton thecomputer,watchingTV, or playingvideogames.

Low-incomevs.higher-income families.As shown inFigure2, amongtwo-parentbiologicaloradoptive families,childreninlow-incomefamilieswereata disadvantageinthreeofthefivemeasuresofthechild’s activities,aftercontrollingforthechild’sgender,age,andrace/ethnicity andthebettereducatedparent’s educationalattainment.

•Amongtwo-parentbiologicaloradoptivefamilies,71percentofchildrenages6-17inlow-income familiesparticipated insometypeofteam,club,oractivity,comparedwith92percentofchildrenin higher-incomefamilies.6

•Similarly,amongtwo-parentfamilies,only55percentofchildrenages6-17inlow-incomefamilies wereinvolvedincommunityserviceorvolunteerworkatschool,church,orinthecommunity, com- paredwith80 percentof childreninhigher-incomefamilies.

Figure2. ChildActivitiesinTwo-ParentBiologicalorAdoptiveMarylandFamilies byFamilyIncome,2003

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

71%

92%

55%

80%

46%

66%

Duringthepast12months,child(age6-Duringthepast12months,child(age6-

Child(age0-5years)takenon4or

17years)participatedinsometypeof team,club,oractivity

17years)wasinvolvedincommunity serviceorvolunteerwork atschool,

church,orinthecommunity

moreoutingsinpastweek

Childreninfamilies below200%poverty

Childreninfamilies

200%ofpovertyand above

•Finally,amongtwo-parentfamilies,46 percentof childrenages0-5 inlow-incomefamiliesparticipated infourormorefamilyoutingsaweek,comparedwith66percentofchildreninhigher-income fami- lies.

However,amongsingle-motherfamilies,wefoundnostatisticallysignificantdifferencesbetweenlow- incomeandhigher-income familiesinthefivemeasuresofthechild’sactivities,aftercontrollingforthe child’sgender,age,andrace/ethnicity.

Single-mother vs.two-parentbiologicaloradoptive families.Amonglow-incomefamilies,we found no statisticallysignificantdifferencesbetween single-motherandtwo-parentbiologicaloradopted familiesin thefivemeasuresofthechild’sactivities,aftercontrollingforthechild’sgender,age,andrace/ethnicity andthebettereducatedparent’seducationalattainment.However,amonghigher-incomefamilies,we foundthatchildreninsingle-motherfamilieswereatadisadvantageinoneofthefivemeasuresofthe

child’sactivities,aftercontrollingforthechild’sgender,age,andrace/ethnicity andthebettereducated parent’seducationalattainment.

•Asshownin Table1,amonghigher-incomefamilies,childrenin two-parentfamiliesweresubstantially morelikely(80percent)to be involvedin communityserviceorvolunteerworkat school,church,orin thecommunitythanwerechildreninsingle-motherfamilies(62 percent).

CHILD’S HEALTHANDWELL-BEING(ASREPORTEDBYPARENT): KEYFINDINGS

Weexamined eightmeasures, thelargestnumber,inthisdomain:theparent’sratingofthechild’semo- tionalandbehavioralproblems;thechild’soverallhealth;thechild’sweightstatus;thechild’sriskforde- velopmental delay;theassessmentofadoctororhealthprofessional aboutthechild’sbehavioralorcon- ductproblems;thechild’srepetitionofagrade;theadequacyofthesleepthechildgets;andthecondition of thechild’steeth.

Low-incomevs.higher-income families.Asshownin Table1,amongsingle-motherfamilies,childrenin low-incomefamilieswereworseoffthanwerechildreninhigher-incomefamiliesforoneoftheeight measuresof childhealthandwell-being,aftercontrollingfor thechild’sgender,age,andrace/ethnicity.

•Amongsingle-motherfamilies,60percentofchildreninlow-incomefamilieshadteeththatwerein excellentor verygood condition,comparedwith79 percentof childreninhigher-incomefamilies.

Amongtwo-parentbiologicaloradoptivefamilies,childrenin low-incomefamilieswereworseofffortwo oftheeightmeasuresofchildhealthandwell-beingthanwerechildreninhigher-income families,after controllingforthechild’sgender,age,andrace/ethnicity andthebettereducatedparent’seducationalat- tainment.

•Amonglow-incometwo-parentbiologicaloradoptivefamilies,82percentofparentsreportedthatthe physicalofhealthoftheirchildwasexcellentorverygood,compared with92percentforparentsin higher-incomefamilies.

•Similarly,amongtwo-parentbiologicaloradoptivefamilies,17percentofchildreninlow-income familieshadrepeatedagrade,comparedwithonly5 percentof childreninhigher-incomefamilies.

Single-mother vs.two-parentbiologicaloradoptive families.Wefoundnostatisticallysignificantdif- ferencesintheeightmeasuresofthechild’shealthandwell-beingbetweensingle-mother andtwo-parent biologicaloradoptivefamilieswithineitherfamilyincomegroup,aftercontrolling forthechild’sgender, age,andrace/ethnicityandthebettereducatedparent’seducationalattainment.

CONCLUSION

ResultsoftheanalysisChildTrendsconductedtoproducethisResearchBriefshowthatbothfamilyin- comeandfamilystructure makeadifferenceforvariousmeasuresofparental well-being,thechild’senvi- ronment,andchildhealthandwell-being, aftercontrolling forthechild’sgender,age,andrace/ethnicity andparentaleducation.However,manyapparentdifferencesassociatedwithincomeorfamilystructure arenotstatisticallysignificantwhenconfoundingfactorsarecontrolled.Wesummarizeourstatistically significantfindingshere:

•Comparedwithhigher-incomesingle-motherfamilies,low-incomesingle-motherfamiliesareatadis- advantagein thefollowingmeasures:(1)parentalphysicalhealth;(2)parentalmentalhealth;(3)paren- talexercise;and(4)children’sdentalhealth.However,childreninlow-incomesingle-mother families areless likelytobelivinginahouseholdwheresomeonesmokes tobacco.

•Comparedwithhigher-incometwo-parentbiologicalfamilies,low-income two-parentbiologicalfami- liesareatadisadvantageinthefollowingmeasures:(1)olderchild’sparticipationinsometypeof team,club,oractivity;(2)olderchild’sinvolvementincommunityserviceorvolunteerwork;(3) young child’soutings;(4) child’sphysicalhealth;and(5) olderchild’srepeatingagrade.

•Comparedwithlow-incometwo-parentbiologicaloradoptivefamilies,low-incomesingle-mother familiesareatadisadvantage inthefollowingmeasures:(1)parent’sphysicalhealth;and(2)parent’s mentalhealth.

•Comparedwithhigher-incometwo-parentbiologicaloradoptivefamilies,low-income two-parentbio- logicaloradoptivefamiliesareatadisadvantage inthefollowingmeasures:(1)olderchild’sinvolve- mentincommunityservice orvolunteerwork;and(2)childsafetyathome.However,mothersinlow- incometwo-parent biologicaloradoptivefamiliesaremorelikelytoexerciseregularlythanaremoth- ers inhigher-incometwo-parentbiologicalor adoptivefamilies

Ithasalsobeenilluminatingtoexplorethejointadvantagesofbeinginahigher-income two-parentbio- logicaloradoptivefamily,whencomparedwithbeingin alow-incomesingle-motherfamily.Forexample, asshowninTable1,20percentofpoorsinglemothersareinfairorpoorphysicalhealth,compared with only4 percentof themostknowledgeableparents3inhigher-incometwo-parentfamilies.Similarly,19per- centofpoorsinglemothersareinfairorpoormentalhealth,compared withonly3percentofthemost knowledgeableparentsinhigher-incometwo-parentfamilies.Sincethesedisadvantagesoftenoccurto- gether,thesecontrastshighlighttheimportanceofbothfamilyincomeandfamilystructure,evenwhen otherconfoundingfactors—suchas parenteducationandrace/ethnicity—aretakenintoaccount.

Thus,ouranalysisofrecentlyreleaseddataonthewell-beingofthenation’schildrenandparentsprovides supportforthehypothesisthatfamilyincomeandfamilystructurejointlyinfluenceboththeenvironment inwhichachildisraisedandchildhealthandwell-being.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Theauthorswish tothankJann Jackson for herreviewof thisResearchBrief.Thisresearchwas fundedby theAnnieE.CaseyFoundation. Wethankthemfortheirsupport,butacknowledge thatthefindingsand conclusions presentedinthisreportarethoseoftheauthorsalone,anddonotnecessarilyreflecttheopin- ionsof theFoundation.

Editor:HarrietJ. Scarupa

Table1. Well-Beingof MarylandSingle-Mother andTwo-ParentFamiliesandTheirChildren: DifferencesbyIncomeStatusandFamilyStructure,2003

MarylandChildren in

Single-Mother Families

MarylandChildren in

Two-ParentFamilies

CHILD'SACTIVITIES

Duringthepast12months,child(age6-17 years)participatesinsometypeof team,club,or activity 69.3%87.5%71.0%D91.8% Duringthepast12months,child(age6-17 years)wasinvolvedincommunityserviceorvolunteer

work atschool,church,orinthecommunity54.9%61.6%C55.1%D79.7% Numberof outingsinpastweek,suchastothepark,library,zoo,shopping,church,restaurants,or

familygatherings(childage0-5 years)

4-6outings / 19.0% / 31.3% / 22.6%D / 43.4%
7ormoreoutings
Child(age6-11 years)spendstimecaringforhim/herself,eitherathomeor somewhereelse, withoutanadultor olderchildresponsibleforhim/her / 16.9%
17.1% / 15.9%
24.0% / 23.3%
14.3% / 22.9%
17.5%
Numberof hourschild(age6-17 years)spendsonthecomputer,watchingTV,andplayingvideo
games
5hoursormore / 25.1% / 18.1% / 7.0% / 9.6%

PARENTCHARACTERISTICS/WELL-BEING

Parentexperienceshighlevelof aggravationinparenting 12.2% 6.6% 5.3% 5.2% Parentinfair/poorphysicalhealth 20.4% AB 6.5% 6.6% 3.7% Parentisinfair/poormentalhealth 18.9% AB 9.3% 7.3% 3.0% Child'smotherregularlyexercisedor playedsportsinthepastmonth 53.4% A 67.3% C 55.5% 59.5%

PARENTING/FAMILYPROCESSES
Parenthasmetallormostof thechild'sfriends(vs.someornone)
(childage6-17years) / 74.5% / 84.8% / 80.7% / 87.9%
Familyhasrulesaboutwhattelevisionprogramschildisallowedtowatch
(childage6-17 years) / 81.3% / 82.4% / 86.0% / 86.5%
Childwaseverbreastfedorfedbreastmilk / 51.9% / 73.7% / 76.3% / 84.7%
Storiesarereadaloudtothechild6-7daysperweek(childage0-5years) / 35.4% / 52.1% / 51.6% / 59.6%

CHILD'SENVIRONMENT/CONTEXT

Parentfeelschildisalwayssafeathome(vs.never,sometimes,usually) 87.8% 82.9% C 93.6% 89.8% Parentfeelschildisalwayssafeinneighborhood(vs.never,sometimes,usually) 35.3% 42.1% 51.0% 49.6% Someoneinthehouseholdusescigarettes,cigars,orpipetobacco 59.1% A 77.2% 68.1% 78.9%

CHILDHEALTHANDWELL-BEING

Parent'sratingof child'semotional,concentration,behavioral,or socialproblems

Moderate/severeemotionalproblems15.5%8.3%8.1%7.7% Child'soverallhealth

Excellent/VeryGood 77.9% 87.2% 82.2% D 92.1%

ChildisoverweightA

(childage10-17years)23.2%16.6%15.3%9.3% Child'srisk fordevelopmentaldelay

(childage6years)B

Highrisk14.6%6.1%12.5%5.9% Doctoror healthprofessionalhastoldparentthatchildhasbehavioralorconductproblems

(childage≥22months) 9.8% 5.5% 4.9% 2.6% Sincestartingkindergarten,child(age6-17years)hasrepeatedagrade 16.2% 8.6% 17.1% D 4.5% Child(age6-17 years)getsenoughsleep7nightsperweek 75.6% 60.8% 76.4% 65.4% Conditionof thechild'steeth

(childage12months)

Excellent/Verygood 60.1% A 78.8% 69.8% 82.1%

Number ofSurveyRespondents 190 239 146 1,063

A.Thedifferenceinthepercentageof childrenwithagivencharacteristicinsingle-motherfamilieswithincomesbelow200%of thepovertylineandthoseinsingle- motherfamilieswithincomesator above200%of thepovertylineisstatisticallysignificantatthe.05levelorbetter.

B.Thedifferenceinthepercentageof childrenwithagivencharacteristicinsingle-motherfamilieswithincomesbelow200%of thepovertylineandthoseintwo- parentfamilieswithincomesbelow200%of thepovertylineisstatisticallysignificantatthe.05levelor better.

C.Thedifferenceinthepercentageof childrenwithagivencharacteristicinsingle-motherfamilieswithincomesator above200%of thepovertylineandthosein two-parentfamilieswithincomesator above200%of thepovertylineisstatisticallysignificantat the.05levelorbetter.

D.Thedifferenceinthepercentageof childrenwithagivencharacteristicin two-parentfamilieswithincomesbelow200%of thepovertylineandthoseintwo- parentfamilieswithincomesator above200%of thepovertyisstatisticallysignificantatthe.05levelor better.

Source:ChildTrendstabulationsof 2003 NationalSurvey of Children’sHealth

Note.Percentagesareunadjusted.Statisticalsignificanceisadjustedfor confoundingfactorsincludingchild’sgender,age,andrace/ethnicity andtheeducationalattainmentof thebettereducatedparent.

REFERENCES

1 In 2003, 200 percentof thepovertylinewas $35,320 for asingle-motherfamilyof three.

2 Wertheimer,R.,Moore,K.A.,Burkhauser,M.,Collins,A.(2008).Thewell-beingofchildreninworkingpoorandother families:1997and2004. Washington,DC:ChildTrends.

3 Brown, Susan L.(2004). Familystructureandchildwell-being:Thesignificanceof parentalcohabitation.JournalofMarriage andtheFamily,66(2),351-67;TheUrbanInstitute.(2006).Parentsandchildrenfacingaworldofrisk:Nextstepstowardsa working familiesagenda. Manning,W.D.,Lamb,K. A.(2003).Adolescentwell-beingincohabiting,married,andsingle-parentfamilies.JournalofMarriageandtheFamily,65(4)

876-893;Moore,K.A.,Jekielek,S.M.,Emig,C.(2002,June).Marriagefromachild’sperspective:Howdoesfamilystruc- tureaffectchildren,andwhatcanwe do aboutit?(ResearchBrief).WashingtonDC:ChildTrends.

4 Insingle-motherfamilies,thisparentis,ofcourse,alwaysthemother.Intwo-parentfamilies,weanalyzedthecharacteristicsof theparentwhoismostknowledgeableaboutthechild’shealthandwell-being—usuallythemother.

5 Thesedifferenceshavebeencalculatedaftercontrollingfordifferencesinthechild’sgenderandrace/ethnicity,plustheeduca- tionalattainmentof thechild’sbetter-educatedparent.

6 Involvementinactivitiesoutsideofschoolhasbeenassociatedwithareducedriskofchildrenbeinginvolvedindelinquent activities,aswellasgreateracademicsuccess,higherself-esteem,andgreatercommunityinvolvementasadults{seeEccles,J.S., &Barber,B.L.(1999). Studentcouncil,volunteering,basketball,or marchingband:Whatkindof extracurricularinvolve-ment matters?JournalofAdolescentResearch,14 (1) 10-43;alsoMahoney,J., Larson,R.,andEccles,J. (Eds.). (2005). Organ- ized activitiesascontextsofdevelopment:Extracurricularactivities,afterschoolandcommunityprograms.Mahwah,NJ:Law-rence ErlbaumAssociates.}Childrenwhoparticipateinorganizedout-of-schoolprogramsalsobecomemoresociallydevelopedthan theirnon-participatingcounterparts(seeMahoney,Larson,Eccles).

ChildTrends isanonprofit,nonpartisanresearchcenterthatstudies childrenatallstagesofdevelopment.Ourmission istoim- prove outcomesforchildrenbyprovidingresearch,data,andanalysistothepeople andinstitutionswhose decisionsandactions affectchildren.Foradditionalinformation onChildTrends,includingpublications availabletodownload,visitourWebsiteat Forthelatest informationonmorethan 100key indicatorsofchild and youthwell-being,visittheChild TrendsDataBankat tionsforchildren,visit