Information Paper 6
Specific Learning Difficulties (Dyslexia)
Psychological Service Information Papers aim to:
•Provide a professional over-view of topics of interest
•Give information to professionals and parents about the identification of children and young people with particular problems
•Offer suggestions on ways of dealing with the problems
•Suggest sources of further information
We are pleased to receive feedback about Information Papers and suggestions for future topics. Please contact James Thatcher at County Hall, telephone 01603 222574.
A small percentage of children experience significant difficulties in developing literacy despite good overall ability and oral language skills, regular school attendance, adequate motivation and access to skilled classroom teaching. Such difficulties are known as 'specific learning difficulties' or 'dyslexia'. This paper gives an overview of specific learning difficulties, outlines approaches to their identification and amelioration and gives sources of further information.
1.Definition
The terms 'dyslexia' and 'specific learning difficulty' are both used to describe problems experienced mainly with written language development. There are a number of definitions of specific learning difficulties. For example, the Dyslexia Institute says they 'are defined as organising or learning deficiencies which restrict the student's competencies in information processing, in motor skills and working memory, so causing limitations in some or all of the skills of speech, reading, spelling, writing, essay writing, numeracy and behaviour'.
The condition is often characterised by features such as persistent poor reading and spelling; problems in remembering written words, letters and numerical symbols; bizarre spelling; difficulties in copying or immature and disorganised handwriting with lots of corrections.
2.Causes
There is no proven physical cause for dyslexia and in many cases there is some confusion over identification since, particularly with younger children, there can be difficulty in distinguishing it from developmental immaturity which disappears with time and good teaching. It is also important to bear in mind that there are many children who have some of the characteristics normally associated with dyslexia (e.g. 'crossed laterality') who successfully master the skills of reading and writing.
Because of the absence of any clearly identifiable underlying medical condition or 'cure' the Joint Working Parties for the Schools Council for Curriculum and Examination and the British Medical Association agreed in 1980 that the problem should be tackled by educationalists rather than medical practitioners. For this reason, the term 'specific learning difficulty' (abbreviated to 'SpeLD') is preferred since it describes the nature of the problem, rather than the term 'dyslexia' which implies some kind of physical disability (Tizard Committee 1972). In practice both terms tend to be used interchangeably.
3.Range of Difficulties and Incidence
The degree of difficulty experienced by individual children can vary from very mild where the pupil becomes a competent reader but may remain an uncertain speller, to very severe where, in spite of every effort, he or she may never attain effective literacy skills and may develop emotional problems such as low self esteem and poor motivation. The majority of children do, however, respond to appropriate teaching. Some estimates put the incidence of specific learning difficulties as high as 15% with about 2% to 4% of children having a significant difficulty.
4.Identification and Assessment
The identification and assessment of specific learning difficulties are not tasks carried out solely by educational psychologists or specialist teachers; there are a number of stages.
•Research evidence suggests the importance of early identification of children who might be at risk of failing to acquire literacy skills. In particular, phonological awareness and its implications for the acquisition of literacy skills has been well researched (Goswami and Bryant, 1990). NPS Advisory Learning Support Teachers can offer advice on the use of Rhyming and Alliteration materials in the classroom and they and Educational Psychologists can give guidance to class teachers on the early identification of specific learning difficulties.
•The class teacher is constantly engaged in diagnosing the learning difficulties (including specific learning difficulties) that children experience. As well as problems of reading, arithmetic and writing, the teacher should look for other signs of a specific learning difficulty.
The child can often experience difficulties in processing and remembering information which lead to problems with memory tasks such as recalling instructions, alphabetical sequences, months of the year or multiplication tables, motor difficulties, and problems with information processing. Some children have a poor sense of direction and others may have a history of late speech development despite good levels of verbal stimulation at home.
Very few pupils demonstrate all of these characteristics but the dominant feature is often an unexpected and noticeable discrepancy between the level of a pupil's written work and his or her ability to pick up and express ideas verbally. Following discussion with parents, an action plan may be devised to facilitate progress.
•When the difficulties are persistent, complex, or severe, advice may be sought from the Advisory Learning Support Teacher or Educational Psychologist. These professionals would look for evidence of problems in one or more of the following areas:
-visual and/or auditory memory recall skills;
-organisational skills;
-information processing;
-sound-symbol association;
-integration of information from different modalities i.e. visual, auditory, kinaesthetic;
-spatial relationships;
-language encoding ability;
-motor co-ordination.
As well as attempting to identify the precise nature of the child's difficulties and giving guidance as to a teaching approach, such an assessment can also form a basis for special consideration being given by Examinations Boards.
5.TeachingApproaches and Support
The majority of pupils respond to normal teaching methods and materials provided that they are presented in a positive and sympathetic fashion. Many children experience and overcome these problems in the early years of learning. If the problems persist, then a detailed review needs to be undertaken and discussed fully with parents.
At this stage the involvement of Psychological Service staff is likely to be sought. They would be likely to carry out a specialist assessment of the areas indicated in Section 4 and then help develop an action plan. This might involve advice on teaching and learning approaches, the provision of specialist materials and programmes or periods of specialist teaching.
Specialist approaches to the teaching of children with SpeLD include an emphasis upon a structured multi-sensory approach to teaching literacy skills, a systematic programme to develop phonological awareness, a sympathetic and supportive approach (with skilled counselling for children whose self esteem is low), regular individual or small group tuition, the development of study skills and support in lessons which require a high level of literacy competence. The pupil's entitlement to access the National Curriculum should be safeguarded.
Protracted failure of any kind can be a source of concern and stress for children, parents and teachers themselves. A frequent characteristic of the pupil with a serious level of specific learning difficulty is a loss of self esteem and a feeling of helplessness. This leads to a need to ensure that the educational environment is particularly sympathetic and that appropriate support (for example, counselling) is available in severe cases.
Early parental involvement in school activities, language work and shared reading is known to be effective as a means of building motivation and success for all children. This positive and practical approach is particularly crucial for those with a specific learning difficulty.
6.LEA Policy and Provision
The LEA's policy on provision for children with specific learning difficulties is similar to that for others with special educational needs. The Authority provides a graduated range of services and facilities for children with SpeLD in accordance with the guidance laid done in the Code of Practice which accompanies Section 313 of the Education Act, 1996. This involves starting with the class teacher as the first point of reference and action, before seeking the advice of the school's SEN Co-ordinator, involving the support agencies and finally, if necessary, considering statutory assessment.
All classroom teachers are qualified professionals who can be expected to identify and respond to the needs of pupils with learning difficulties as part of their ongoing work. The LEA provides a range of support services from which teachers may seek advice, materials and learning programmes and, where appropriate, specialist teaching support.
Where difficulties are complex and persistent it may be appropriate to undertake a Statutory Assessment under Section 323 of the Education Act, 1996. This may lead to the provision in the most severe cases of additional support beyond the range of resources normally available through the school's own staffing or the support Services described above.
For students at High School who have a stubborn difficulty there may be a need to modify the way in which work is presented and to make extra allowances for slow, untidy and inaccurate written work. Arrangements are regularly made by Educational Psychologists to provide individual students with recommendations for dispensation from Examination Boards so that special arrangements can be made over written assignments and exams. The procedure and requirements for such an assessment are detailed within a further NPS procedural paper: 'Requesting special arrangements in GCSE and GCE Examinations.'
Over the past six years the LEA has introduced a range of special measures for children with specific learning difficulties. These include:-
•Allocating 25% of the time of Psychological Service Learning Support Teachers to the assessment, teaching and support of pupils with a complex and specific learning difficulty. The teaching of pupils of primary age may take place at schools or at off-site centres.
•Establishing Royal Society of Arts approved training courses (Certificate and Advanced Diploma) for teachers of children with specific learning difficulties.
•Running the RSA Clansa course for support assistants.
•Establishing a dialogue with voluntary agencies who are concerned about children with specific learning difficulties and supporting 'Clinics' for parents.
•Running a series of awareness raising courses for teachers in ordinary schools.
•Producing this information paper on dyslexia for teachers in mainstream schools.
•Establishing a number of Support Centres at High schools to enable secondary aged pupils to get continued specialist tuition and support while being able to access the full curriculum.
7.Further Information
The following publications may be helpful.
•Suggestions for Helping the Dyslexic Child in the Home, Marion Welchman
•Dyslexia: Your Questions Answered, Marion Welchman
•No Easy Answers: The Learning Disabled Child, Sally Smith
•Dyslexia: Integrating Theory and Practice, Proceedings of the Second International Conference, Oxford, 1991
•(The above titles are available from the British Dyslexia Association, 98 London Road, Reading, Berks, RG1 5AU)
•Specific Learning Difficulties ( Dyslexia) - A Handbook for Study And Practice
Gavin Reid , Moray House Publications 1996
•Dyslexia - A Practitioner's Handbook, Gavin Reid, Wiley 1998
•Dyslexia - A multidisciplinary approach , Patience Thomas - Peter Gilchrist
Chapman & Hall, 1997
•Day to Day Dyslexia in the Classroom, Pollock J & Waller E, Routledge, 1994
•How to Detect and Manage Dyslexia , Pholomena Ott.
•Reading Guidelines, 1993, Norfolk Education Authority
•Reading Guidelines: Developing the Reading Curriculum, 1993, Norfolk Education Authority
•Specific Learning Difficulties (Dyslexia), Pumfrey and Reason, 1991, NFER Nelson
•The Book Doesn't Make Sense, Augur, Jean, Bath Education Publishers
•Learning Difficulties in Reading and Writing, Reason and Boote, 1986, NFER Nelson
•Phonological Skills and Learning to Read, Goswami and Bryant, 1990, Lawrence Erlbawn
•Dyslexia: A Teaching Handbook, Thomson and Watkins, Wheeler
•Dyslexia: A Parent's Survival Guide, Ammonite
•Help for the Adolescent Dyslexic, Stirling, (Available form 114, Westbourne Road, Sheffield, SI0 2QT)
•Children's Reading Problems, Bryant and Bradley, Blackwell
•The Dyslexia Institute, 133, Greyshem Road, Staines, Middlesex, TW18 2AJ, is a source of useful information as is the British Dyslexia Association.
Further information about Specific Learning Difficulties can be obtained from:
•Liz Jones, NPS Area Teacher, Greenwood Centre, 01603 458191
•Charlie Henry, NPS Area Manager, 01553 669213
•Margaret Raines, NPS Senior Learning Support Teacher, 01493 662923
•Bill Smith, NPS Senior Educational Psychologist, 01953 456545
Your Psychological Service School Support Team will be pleased to discuss any issues relating to pupils experiencing a Specific Learning Difficulty
Norfolk Psychological Service.Information Paper 6.Specific Learning Difficulties.July 1998 - 1 -