Power relationships 1
Power relationships based on Socially Defined Difference
Name
College
Power relationships 2
Age is my first example of power relationships based on socially defined
difference. Age is socially constructed, although there are some biological aspects to the
legislation and social view points that define the age such as conception, puberty and
degeneration. History has shown the changes in the viewpoints towards age and the
different perceptions from child to adult to elderly, changes that have occurred due to
legislation and advances in technology and medical science. Other cultures have shown
that age is a social construct by their traditions and initiations at certain ages which vary
from each culture. Class, Gender, Ethnicity have also proven to effect age , that
stratification in society effects how one would perceive age. The idea that definitions of
age change due to time and trends enforces that age must be a social construct.
Gender is my second example of power relationship based on socially defined
difference. The idea that gender difference is socially constructed, is a view present in
many philosophical and sociological theories about gender. According to this view,
society and culture create gender roles, and these roles are prescribed as ideal or
appropriate behavior for a person of that specific gender. Stronger versions argue that the
differences in behavior between men and women are entirely social conventions, whereas
weaker versions believe that behavior is defined by biological universal factors to some
extent, but that social conventions also have some effect on gender behavior. Other
theories claim that there are more genders than just the two most commonly accepted
male and female.
Race is the third example of a power relationship based on socially defined
Power relationships 3
difference. The immigrants to the New World came largely from widely separated regions
of the Old World western and northern Europe, western Africa, and, later, eastern Asia
and southern and eastern Europe. In America, the immigrant populations began to
mix among themselves and with the indigenous inhabitants of the continent. In the United
States, for example, most people who self-identify as African American have some
European ancestors, in one analysis of genetic markers that have differing frequencies
between continents, European ancestry ranged from an estimated 7% for a sample of
Jamaicans to 23% for a sample of African Americans from New Orleans.
The laws in creating and maintaining power relationships
In the United states, the law regarding the age of majority has fluctuated over time,
ranging since the early 1970s between 18 and 21, those younger than this age were
considered to be “children” under the law, with limited rights and responsibilities.
Another law in place before the 1960’s, that effected women and some members
of minority groups from joining police forces because they did not meet the minimum
height and weight requirements to be a police officer. The height and weight requirements
were based on those of an average Northern European male. Historically, legal
restrictions on voting, marriage, and property rights have been issues women have dealt
with. Another example is if a man hits another man, this behavior may be prosecuted as
assault in every state. However, if a husband hits his wife, in most states this behavior is
defined as” domestic violence.” the word or the phrase “domestic” makes the violence
sound less serious. Extensive research has evidenced that the designation of violence
between intimates as a “disturbance” rather than an”assault” slows police response,
Power relationships 4
reduces the likelihood of arrest, and reduces penalties. This differential treatment of
women reinforces the differences between men and women and helps to ensure
that the category ”women” will be less valued than the category “man.” The "one drop
rule" implemented in some state laws that treated anyone with a single known African
American ancestor as black. The decennial censuses conducted since 1790 in the United
States also created an incentive to establish racial categories and fit people into those
categories. The “Jim Crow” laws (1867-1965), were designed to maintain the separation
of blacks from whites and to control the behavior of blacks in the South. And also the poll
tax that had to be paid before the 1960’s. Blacks even though they were registered to vote
could not afford to pay the tax so they still were not able to vote.
Why society continues to maintain such relationships
Society continues to maintain such relationships and policies, even in the face of
their failure to preserve safety and/or democratic values. If we choose to live as though
our age, race, gender, or ethnicity are irrelevant to who we are, these characteristics are
still important in our lives because the rest of the world links arrest decisions,
employment decisions, educational opportunities, and so on, to our membership in certain
groups. The majority of those incarcerated in jails and prisons are people of color
(Donziger, 1996) Misunderstanding or ignoring difference can be a matter of life and
death. Assuming that the only danger in society comes from people who look a certain
way may make us vulnerable to those who do not fit the stereotype. Research has shown
that the crime engaged in by white-collar and corporate offenders is far more harmful to
Power relationships 5
the public than the crime committed by traditional street offenders (Reiman, 1996). Partly
because white-collar offenders do not fit our stereotypical image of the “criminal,” we
have failed to respond effectively to a wide range of extremely harmful behavior,
including environmental pollution, consumer fraud, and occupational injury. This is a
mistake that can only be remedied by careful attention to the construction of difference
and the consequences of privileging some groups over others within a democratic society.
Power relationships 6
References
Investigating Difference, Human and Cultural Relations in Criminal Justice, Allyn and Bacon, pg. 1-41.
ower relationships 1
Power relationships based on Socially Defined Difference
Frederico Lewis
Ashworth College
Power relationships 2
Age is my first example of power relationships based on socially defined
difference. Age is socially constructed, although there are some biological aspects to the
legislation and social view points that define the age such as conception, puberty and
degeneration. History has shown the changes in the viewpoints towards age and the
different perceptions from child to adult to elderly, changes that have occurred due to
legislation and advances in technology and medical science. Other cultures have shown
that age is a social construct by their traditions and initiations at certain ages which vary
from each culture. Class, Gender, Ethnicity have also proven to effect age , that
stratification in society effects how one would perceive age. The idea that definitions of
age change due to time and trends enforces that age must be a social construct.
Gender is my second example of power relationship based on socially defined
difference. The idea that gender difference is socially constructed, is a view present in
many philosophical and sociological theories about gender. According to this view,
society and culture create gender roles, and these roles are prescribed as ideal or
appropriate behavior for a person of that specific gender. Stronger versions argue that the
differences in behavior between men and women are entirely social conventions, whereas
weaker versions believe that behavior is defined by biological universal factors to some
extent, but that social conventions also have some effect on gender behavior. Other
theories claim that there are more genders than just the two most commonly accepted
male and female.
Race is the third example of a power relationship based on socially defined
Power relationships 3
difference. The immigrants to the New World came largely from widely separated regions
of the Old World western and northern Europe, western Africa, and, later, eastern Asia
and southern and eastern Europe. In America, the immigrant populations began to
mix among themselves and with the indigenous inhabitants of the continent. In the United
States, for example, most people who self-identify as African American have some
European ancestors, in one analysis of genetic markers that have differing frequencies
between continents, European ancestry ranged from an estimated 7% for a sample of
Jamaicans to 23% for a sample of African Americans from New Orleans.
The laws in creating and maintaining power relationships
In the United states, the law regarding the age of majority has fluctuated over time,
ranging since the early 1970s between 18 and 21, those younger than this age were
considered to be “children” under the law, with limited rights and responsibilities.
Another law in place before the 1960’s, that effected women and some members
of minority groups from joining police forces because they did not meet the minimum
height and weight requirements to be a police officer. The height and weight requirements
were based on those of an average Northern European male. Historically, legal
restrictions on voting, marriage, and property rights have been issues women have dealt
with. Another example is if a man hits another man, this behavior may be prosecuted as
assault in every state. However, if a husband hits his wife, in most states this behavior is
defined as” domestic violence.” the word or the phrase “domestic” makes the violence
sound less serious. Extensive research has evidenced that the designation of violence
between intimates as a “disturbance” rather than an”assault” slows police response,
Power relationships 4
reduces the likelihood of arrest, and reduces penalties. This differential treatment of
women reinforces the differences between men and women and helps to ensure
that the category ”women” will be less valued than the category “man.” The "one drop
rule" implemented in some state laws that treated anyone with a single known African
American ancestor as black. The decennial censuses conducted since 1790 in the United
States also created an incentive to establish racial categories and fit people into those
categories. The “Jim Crow” laws (1867-1965), were designed to maintain the separation
of blacks from whites and to control the behavior of blacks in the South. And also the poll
tax that had to be paid before the 1960’s. Blacks even though they were registered to vote
could not afford to pay the tax so they still were not able to vote.
Why society continues to maintain such relationships
Society continues to maintain such relationships and policies, even in the face of
their failure to preserve safety and/or democratic values. If we choose to live as though
our age, race, gender, or ethnicity are irrelevant to who we are, these characteristics are
still important in our lives because the rest of the world links arrest decisions,
employment decisions, educational opportunities, and so on, to our membership in certain
groups. The majority of those incarcerated in jails and prisons are people of color
(Donziger, 1996) Misunderstanding or ignoring difference can be a matter of life and
death. Assuming that the only danger in society comes from people who look a certain
way may make us vulnerable to those who do not fit the stereotype. Research has shown
that the crime engaged in by white-collar and corporate offenders is far more harmful to
Power relationships 5
the public than the crime committed by traditional street offenders (Reiman, 1996). Partly
because white-collar offenders do not fit our stereotypical image of the “criminal,” we
have failed to respond effectively to a wide range of extremely harmful behavior,
including environmental pollution, consumer fraud, and occupational injury. This is a
mistake that can only be remedied by careful attention to the construction of difference
and the consequences of privileging some groups over others within a democratic society.
Power relationships 6
References
Investigating Difference, Human and Cultural Relations in Criminal Justice, Allyn and Bacon, pg. 1-41.