Power Relationships Based on Socially Defined Difference

Power relationships 1

Power relationships based on Socially Defined Difference

Name

College

Power relationships 2

Age is my first example of power relationships based on socially defined

difference. Age is socially constructed, although there are some biological aspects to the

legislation and social view points that define the age such as conception, puberty and

degeneration. History has shown the changes in the viewpoints towards age and the

different perceptions from child to adult to elderly, changes that have occurred due to

legislation and advances in technology and medical science. Other cultures have shown

that age is a social construct by their traditions and initiations at certain ages which vary

from each culture. Class, Gender, Ethnicity have also proven to effect age , that

stratification in society effects how one would perceive age. The idea that definitions of

age change due to time and trends enforces that age must be a social construct.

Gender is my second example of power relationship based on socially defined

difference. The idea that gender difference is socially constructed, is a view present in

many philosophical and sociological theories about gender. According to this view,

society and culture create gender roles, and these roles are prescribed as ideal or

appropriate behavior for a person of that specific gender. Stronger versions argue that the

differences in behavior between men and women are entirely social conventions, whereas

weaker versions believe that behavior is defined by biological universal factors to some

extent, but that social conventions also have some effect on gender behavior. Other

theories claim that there are more genders than just the two most commonly accepted

male and female.

Race is the third example of a power relationship based on socially defined

Power relationships 3

difference. The immigrants to the New World came largely from widely separated regions

of the Old World western and northern Europe, western Africa, and, later, eastern Asia

and southern and eastern Europe. In America, the immigrant populations began to

mix among themselves and with the indigenous inhabitants of the continent. In the United

States, for example, most people who self-identify as African American have some

European ancestors, in one analysis of genetic markers that have differing frequencies

between continents, European ancestry ranged from an estimated 7% for a sample of

Jamaicans to 23% for a sample of African Americans from New Orleans.

The laws in creating and maintaining power relationships

In the United states, the law regarding the age of majority has fluctuated over time,

ranging since the early 1970s between 18 and 21, those younger than this age were

considered to be “children” under the law, with limited rights and responsibilities.

Another law in place before the 1960’s, that effected women and some members

of minority groups from joining police forces because they did not meet the minimum

height and weight requirements to be a police officer. The height and weight requirements

were based on those of an average Northern European male. Historically, legal

restrictions on voting, marriage, and property rights have been issues women have dealt

with. Another example is if a man hits another man, this behavior may be prosecuted as

assault in every state. However, if a husband hits his wife, in most states this behavior is

defined as” domestic violence.” the word or the phrase “domestic” makes the violence

sound less serious. Extensive research has evidenced that the designation of violence

between intimates as a “disturbance” rather than an”assault” slows police response,

Power relationships 4

reduces the likelihood of arrest, and reduces penalties. This differential treatment of

women reinforces the differences between men and women and helps to ensure

that the category ”women” will be less valued than the category “man.” The "one drop

rule" implemented in some state laws that treated anyone with a single known African

American ancestor as black. The decennial censuses conducted since 1790 in the United

States also created an incentive to establish racial categories and fit people into those

categories. The “Jim Crow” laws (1867-1965), were designed to maintain the separation

of blacks from whites and to control the behavior of blacks in the South. And also the poll

tax that had to be paid before the 1960’s. Blacks even though they were registered to vote

could not afford to pay the tax so they still were not able to vote.

Why society continues to maintain such relationships

Society continues to maintain such relationships and policies, even in the face of

their failure to preserve safety and/or democratic values. If we choose to live as though

our age, race, gender, or ethnicity are irrelevant to who we are, these characteristics are

still important in our lives because the rest of the world links arrest decisions,

employment decisions, educational opportunities, and so on, to our membership in certain

groups. The majority of those incarcerated in jails and prisons are people of color

(Donziger, 1996) Misunderstanding or ignoring difference can be a matter of life and

death. Assuming that the only danger in society comes from people who look a certain

way may make us vulnerable to those who do not fit the stereotype. Research has shown

that the crime engaged in by white-collar and corporate offenders is far more harmful to

Power relationships 5

the public than the crime committed by traditional street offenders (Reiman, 1996). Partly

because white-collar offenders do not fit our stereotypical image of the “criminal,” we

have failed to respond effectively to a wide range of extremely harmful behavior,

including environmental pollution, consumer fraud, and occupational injury. This is a

mistake that can only be remedied by careful attention to the construction of difference

and the consequences of privileging some groups over others within a democratic society.

Power relationships 6

References

Investigating Difference, Human and Cultural Relations in Criminal Justice, Allyn and Bacon, pg. 1-41.

ower relationships 1

Power relationships based on Socially Defined Difference

Frederico Lewis

Ashworth College

Power relationships 2

Age is my first example of power relationships based on socially defined

difference. Age is socially constructed, although there are some biological aspects to the

legislation and social view points that define the age such as conception, puberty and

degeneration. History has shown the changes in the viewpoints towards age and the

different perceptions from child to adult to elderly, changes that have occurred due to

legislation and advances in technology and medical science. Other cultures have shown

that age is a social construct by their traditions and initiations at certain ages which vary

from each culture. Class, Gender, Ethnicity have also proven to effect age , that

stratification in society effects how one would perceive age. The idea that definitions of

age change due to time and trends enforces that age must be a social construct.

Gender is my second example of power relationship based on socially defined

difference. The idea that gender difference is socially constructed, is a view present in

many philosophical and sociological theories about gender. According to this view,

society and culture create gender roles, and these roles are prescribed as ideal or

appropriate behavior for a person of that specific gender. Stronger versions argue that the

differences in behavior between men and women are entirely social conventions, whereas

weaker versions believe that behavior is defined by biological universal factors to some

extent, but that social conventions also have some effect on gender behavior. Other

theories claim that there are more genders than just the two most commonly accepted

male and female.

Race is the third example of a power relationship based on socially defined

Power relationships 3

difference. The immigrants to the New World came largely from widely separated regions

of the Old World western and northern Europe, western Africa, and, later, eastern Asia

and southern and eastern Europe. In America, the immigrant populations began to

mix among themselves and with the indigenous inhabitants of the continent. In the United

States, for example, most people who self-identify as African American have some

European ancestors, in one analysis of genetic markers that have differing frequencies

between continents, European ancestry ranged from an estimated 7% for a sample of

Jamaicans to 23% for a sample of African Americans from New Orleans.

The laws in creating and maintaining power relationships

In the United states, the law regarding the age of majority has fluctuated over time,

ranging since the early 1970s between 18 and 21, those younger than this age were

considered to be “children” under the law, with limited rights and responsibilities.

Another law in place before the 1960’s, that effected women and some members

of minority groups from joining police forces because they did not meet the minimum

height and weight requirements to be a police officer. The height and weight requirements

were based on those of an average Northern European male. Historically, legal

restrictions on voting, marriage, and property rights have been issues women have dealt

with. Another example is if a man hits another man, this behavior may be prosecuted as

assault in every state. However, if a husband hits his wife, in most states this behavior is

defined as” domestic violence.” the word or the phrase “domestic” makes the violence

sound less serious. Extensive research has evidenced that the designation of violence

between intimates as a “disturbance” rather than an”assault” slows police response,

Power relationships 4

reduces the likelihood of arrest, and reduces penalties. This differential treatment of

women reinforces the differences between men and women and helps to ensure

that the category ”women” will be less valued than the category “man.” The "one drop

rule" implemented in some state laws that treated anyone with a single known African

American ancestor as black. The decennial censuses conducted since 1790 in the United

States also created an incentive to establish racial categories and fit people into those

categories. The “Jim Crow” laws (1867-1965), were designed to maintain the separation

of blacks from whites and to control the behavior of blacks in the South. And also the poll

tax that had to be paid before the 1960’s. Blacks even though they were registered to vote

could not afford to pay the tax so they still were not able to vote.

Why society continues to maintain such relationships

Society continues to maintain such relationships and policies, even in the face of

their failure to preserve safety and/or democratic values. If we choose to live as though

our age, race, gender, or ethnicity are irrelevant to who we are, these characteristics are

still important in our lives because the rest of the world links arrest decisions,

employment decisions, educational opportunities, and so on, to our membership in certain

groups. The majority of those incarcerated in jails and prisons are people of color

(Donziger, 1996) Misunderstanding or ignoring difference can be a matter of life and

death. Assuming that the only danger in society comes from people who look a certain

way may make us vulnerable to those who do not fit the stereotype. Research has shown

that the crime engaged in by white-collar and corporate offenders is far more harmful to

Power relationships 5

the public than the crime committed by traditional street offenders (Reiman, 1996). Partly

because white-collar offenders do not fit our stereotypical image of the “criminal,” we

have failed to respond effectively to a wide range of extremely harmful behavior,

including environmental pollution, consumer fraud, and occupational injury. This is a

mistake that can only be remedied by careful attention to the construction of difference

and the consequences of privileging some groups over others within a democratic society.

Power relationships 6

References

Investigating Difference, Human and Cultural Relations in Criminal Justice, Allyn and Bacon, pg. 1-41.