Positive Feedback- a Response the Increases the Stimulus

Chapter 40

Distinguish among the following sets of terms: collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibers; regulator and conformer; positive and negative feedback; basal and standard metabolic rates; torpor, hibernation, estivation, and daily torpor (N.H)

collagenous fibers provide strength combined with flexibility and are made of collagen. Elastic fibers are easily stretch but return to their original shape and are made of a protein called elastin. Reticular fibers are composed of collagen and form a tightly woven fabric the joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues. (857)
Regulator- an animal that uses internal mechanism to maintain internal change in the face of external change. Example: Warm blooded
Conformer- allows its internal condition to conform to external changes. Example: cold blooded (860)
Positive feedback- a response the increases the stimulus.
Negative Feedback- a response the reduces the stimulus. For example, when you get hot you sweat which reduces body temperature.
Basal metabolic rate- the minimum metabolic rate of an endoderm that is not growing, at rest, has an empty stomach and not experiencing stress
Standard metabolic rate- metabolic rate of a fasting, non-stressed ectoderm at rest (870)
Torpor-a physiological state when metabolism and activity is low. Like sleeping (872)
Hibernation- a long term torpor adapted to cold scarcity (872)
Estivation- a torpor adapted for high temperature and water scarcity (872)
Daily torpor- sleeping (872)

Relate structure with function and identify diagrams of the following animal tissues: epithelial, connective tissue (six types), muscle tissue (three types), and nervous tissue (N.H)

Epithelial tissue- lining types of tissues like skin and the linings of organs (856)
Connective tissues- Bind and support other tissues of the body. Includes blood (857)
Muscle tissue- responsible for movement.(858)
Smooth tissue- found in walls of digestive track, bladder, arteries and other internal organs. They are involuntary.
Skeletal muscle- responsible for voluntary movements.
Cardiac muscle- forms contractile muscles of wall
Nervous tissue- transmits signals and senses stimuli. (858)

Compare and contrast the nervous and endocrine systems (N.H)

Both the nervous system and the endocrine system are used in signaling. The endocrine makes hormones that go throughout the whole body. This way is slower and much broader. Also, the same hormone can have different affects on different cells. The nervous system is extremely quick and very specific. (859)

Define thermoregulation and explain how endotherms and ectotherms manage their heat budgets
Describe how a countercurrent heat exchanger may function to retain heat within an animal body
Define bioenergetics and biosynthesis
Define metabolic rate and explain how it can be determined for animals

Chapter 41

Name the three nutritional needs that must be met by an animal’s diet (D.H)

The three nutritional needs that must be met by an animal’s diet are fuel for ATP production, it must supply the organic raw materials needed for biosynthesis to construct organic molecules, and essential nutrients that the animal cannot make from raw materials must be provided in its food. (Pages 875-876)

Describe the four classes of essential nutrients (D.H)

The four classes of essential nutrients are essential-amino acids, essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals. Essential-amino acids are amino acids that an animal cannot synthesize itself and must be obtained from food in prefabricated form. Essential fatty acids are unsaturated fatty acids that an animal needs but cannot make. Vitamins are organic molecules required in the diet in very small amounts; they serve primarily as coenzymes or as parts of coenzymes. Minerals are simple nutrients that are inorganic and therefore cannot be synthesized. (Pages 876-878)

Distinguish among undernourishment, overnourishment, and malnourishment (D.H)

Undernourishment is a condition that results from a diet that consistently supplies less chemical energy than the body requires. Overnourishment is the consumption of more calories than the body needs for normal metabolism. Malnourishment is the long-term absence from the diet of one or more essential nutrients. (Pages 879 & 894)

Describe the four main stages of food processing (D.H)

The four main stages of food processing are ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination. Ingestion is the act of eating. Digestion is where food is broken down into molecules small enough for the body to absorb. Absorption is where the animal’s cells absorb small molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars. Elimination completes the process as undigested materials pass out of the digestive system. (Pages 880 & 882)

Distinguish between a complete digestive tract and a gastrovascular cavity
Follow a meal through the mammalian digestive system:
List important enzymes and describe their roles
Compare where and how the major types of macromolecules are digested and absorbed
Relate variations in dentition with different diets
Explain where and in what form energy-rich molecules may be stored in the human body

Chapter 42

Compare and contrast open and closed circulatory systems
Compare and contrast the circulatory systems of fish, amphibians, non-bird reptiles, and mammals or birds
Distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circuits and explain the function of each
Trace the path of a red blood cell through the human heart, pulmonary circuit, and systemic circuit
Define cardiac cycle and explain the role of the sinoatrial node
Relate the structures of capillaries, arteries, and veins to their function
Define blood pressure and cardiac output and describe two factors that influence each
Explain how osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure regulate the exchange of fluid and solutes across the capillary walls
Describe the role played by the lymphatic system in relation to the circulatory system
Describe the function of erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets, fibrin
Distinguish between a heart attack and stroke
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of water and of air as respiratory media

Chapter 43

Distinguish between the following pairs of terms: antigens and antibodies; antigen and epitope; B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes; antibodies and B cell receptors; primary and secondary immune responses; humoral and cell-mediated response; active and passive immunity
Explain how B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes recognize specific antigens
Explain why the antigen receptors of lymphocytes are tested for self-reactivity
Describe clonal selection and distinguish between effector cells and memory cells
Describe the cellular basis for immunological memory
Explain how a single antigen can provoke a robust humoral response
Compare the processes of neutralization and opsonization
Describe the role of MHC in the rejection of tissue transplants
Describe an allergic reaction, including the roles of IgE, mast cells, and histamine
Describe some of the mechanisms that pathogens have evolved to thwart the immune response of their hosts
List strategies that can reduce the risk of HIV transmission

Chapter 44

Distinguish between the following terms: isoosmotic, hyperosmotic, and hypoosmotic; osmoregulators and osmoconformers; stenohaline and euryhaline animals (J.G)

Hyperosmotic describes a fluid that has a high amount of solutes, isoosmotic has an average amount of solutes, and hypoosmotic has a low amount of solutes. Osmoconformers are isotonic with the surrounding environment and osmoregulators regulate their osmolarity regardless of the osmolarity of their surroundings. Stenohalines have a narrow range of internal osmolarity in which they can function, while euryhalines have a wide range of internal osmolarity in which they can function. (pg. 954-955)

Define osmoregulation, excretion, anhydrobiosis (J.G)

Osmoregulation is the process of regulating solute and water levels. Excretion is when the kidneys filter out the waste of the blood. The waste (urine) is excreted from the body. Anhydrobiosis is a dormant stage that organisms go through when they loose the water in their environment. (pg. 954 paragraph #2, pg. 956 paragraph #5)

Compare the osmoregulatory challenges of freshwater and marine animals (J.G)

The challenges that marine organisms face in osmoregulation is controlling water loss due to the environment and controlling the types of solutes in the organism. Inside the organism are often chloride ions, which are pumped out bye chloride cells; then sodium ions passively enter the organism. Fresh water organisms face the challenge of being internally hyperosmotic for the most part. When their water concentration is too high, they can loose salts or excrete diluted urine. (pgs. 955-956)

Describe some of the factors that affect the energetic cost of osmoregulation(J.G)

Some of the factors that affect the energetic cost of osmoregulation in osmoregulators are how different your osmolarity is from the environment, the ease at which water and solutes can enter the organism, and the amount of energy required to work active transport proteins. When your osmolarity levels are very different from your surroundings, you will have to use more energy. If it is difficult to move the water and solutes, then you will use more energy. If the active transport proteins require a lot of energy, then you will use a lot of energy. (pg. 957 paragraph #’s 5-6)

Describe and compare the protonephridial, metanephridial, and Malpighian tubule excretory systems (S.P)

Protonephridia form a network of dead-end tubules connected to external openings. The tubules branch throughout the body. Cellular units called flame bulb caps the branches of each protonephridium. Formed from a tubule cell and a cap cell, each flame bulb has a tuft of cilia projecting into the tubule. During filtration, the beating of the cilia draws water and solutes from the interstitial fluid through the falme bulb, releasing filtrate into the tubule network. The flame bulb got its name because the movement of the cilia resembles a flame. The processed filtrate then moves outward through the tubules and empties as urine.
Metanephridial are excretory organs that open internally to the coelom. Each segment of a worm has a pair of metanephridia, which are immersed in coelomic fluid and enveloped by a capillary network. A ciliated funnel surrounds the internal opening. As the cilia bend, fluid is drawn into a collecting tubule, which includes a storage bladder that opens to the outside. As urine moves along the tubule, the transport epithelium bordering the lumen reabsorbs most solutes and returns them to the blood in the capillaries.
Malpighian tubes are found in insects and other terrestrial arthropods. These organs remove nitrogenous wastes and also function in osmoregulation. The tubules extend from dead-end tips immersed in circulatory fluid to openings into the digestive tract.

Using a diagram, identify and describe the function of each region of the nephron
Explain how the loop of Henle enhances water conservation
Describe the nervous and hormonal controls involved in the regulation of kidney function

Chapter 45

Distinguish between the following pairs of terms: hormones and local regulators, paracrine and autocrine signals
Describe the evidence that steroid hormones have intracellular receptors, while water-soluble hormones have cell-surface receptors
Explain how the antagonistic hormones insulin and glucagon regulate carbohydrate metabolism
Distinguish between type 1 and type 2 diabetes
Explain how the hypothalamus and the pituitary glands interact and how they coordinate the endocrine system
Explain the role of tropic hormones in coordinating endocrine signaling throughout the body
List and describe the functions of hormones released by the following: anterior and posterior pituitary lobes, thyroid glands, parathyroid glands, adrenal medulla, adrenal cortex, gonads, pineal gland