PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY

Learning Objective: To understand the role, location, and nature of electrons in

an atom.

NC Standards: 2.06, 3.01

Pre-Requisite: An understanding of the atom – suggest The Atom Inquiry Activity

Skills: Data analysis

Strand: Nature of science, science as inquiry and science and

technology

Safety Precautions: None

Science Concepts:Understand the different types of orbitals, the

location of electrons, how many electrons are in

each orbital, how many orbitals are in each

sublevel, how ionization energy relates to electron

configuration and how ionization energy relates to

the distance of an atom from the nucleus.

Materials: No additional material needed

Background Information:

Earlier we proposed an atomic model with electrons in orbitals around the nucleus, some further away from the nucleus than others. If an electron is said to occupy an energy level in an atom then each electron must be in an orbital at a particular distance from the nucleus and the energy levels corresponding to these orbitals have a certain energy level.

The next step in the location of the electron required Photoelectron Spectroscopy. In chemistry, spectroscopy is a technique that is used to detect what type, and/or what amount, of a chemical substance might be in a chemical sample. Spectroscopic methods are quite common and popular in areas such as forensic (crime) science, where they are used to detect what might be in a murder victims blood, or what might be in some substance found at a crime scene.

In photoelectron spectroscopy (PES), we can detect what substance we have by measuring the amount of energy needed to remove electrons. All substances contain electrons. Electrons can be added to a substance or removed from a substance. If we add an electron, the substance becomes negatively charged. If we remove an electron, the substance becomes positively charged. We can write this last example as:

This equation says that we have a molecule (M), and it loses an electron to become M+. How does this happen? Energy is needed to remove the electron. This energy is called the ionization energy. When an electron is removed, we say it is ionized, and the energy needed to do that is the ionization energy (IE).

Where does that energy come from? It can come from light energy, which is called a photon. When energy from a photon (shown in the graphic as squiqqly red arrows) strikes the surface of a substance some of the electrons “ionize”, and leave the substance. The substance now has a positive charge. In photoelectron spectroscopy, we are interested in measuring the energy required to remove these electrons. It is often the case that there is more energy striking the surface than is actually needed to remove the electron(s). When that happens, the electrons also have kinetic energy.

The table below provides a short overview of the process:

Description / Image
In the beginning condition, we have two electrons that are bound to the molecule (represented by the letter “M”. This is called the initial state. /
After energy strikes the metal surface, an electron moves to the next level, called the vacuum level. Given that the electron has left a “hole” in the molecule, there is now a plus charge on the molecule. /
The energy required to move the electron from the bound state to the vacuum level is known as the ionization energy (I.E.). It is possible, as is shown here, for the electron to move past the vacuum level. /
Assuming that the electron does move past the vacuum level, the extra energy is in the formed of kinetic energy (K.E.). The metal is now M+ (a positively-charged metal) plus an ionized, or free, electron. /

The photoelectron spectrum is a plot of the number of electrons emitted versus their kinetic energy. In the diagram below, the “X” axis is labeled high to low energies so that you think about the XY intersect as being the nucleus.


Orbital names s, p, d, and f stand for names given to groups of lines in the spectra of the alkali metals. Early chemists called the line groups sharp, principal, diffuse, and fundamental.

Electron configuration: a notation describing electrons in an atom. For example

Sodium electrons are represented as1s22s22p63s1. The coefficient tell us the energy level and the superscript tells us the number of electrons in that energy level.

Interpretations from the data:

1. There are no values on the y axis in the tables above. Using the Periodic Table and Table 1, put numbers on the y axis.

2. Label each peak on the graphs above with s, p, d, or f to indicate the suborbital they represent..

3. What is the total number of electrons in a neutral potassium atom?

4. How does the number of electrons in a neutral potassium atom relate to the Atomic Number of potassium?

5. Potassium loses one electron when forming an ion. Which electron is mostly to be removed to form K+? ______Explain ______

______

6. Sketch a photoelectric spectrum of calcium. (Don’t try to make it to scale)

7. What is the trend in ionization energy for electrons as they move further from the nucleus?

8. Why is the ionization energy for the 1s orbital in calcium greater than the ionization energy of the 1s orbital in potassium? ______

9. What element could have the following spectrum? ______

10. Examine the graph below.

a)Which electron(s) is represented by the 0.77 peak?______

b)Which electron(s) is represented by the 0.63 peak? ______

c) Scandium looses two electrons when forming Sc2+. Which electrons are most likely to be removed? ______.

Explain the logic for your answer. ______

  1. Draw a model of a scandium atom by sketching the relative distance of each energy sublevel from the nucleus. Describe how your model compares to the spectrum in #6.

12.Using the Periodic Table, what is the relationship between sublevels and the number of orbitals within each sublevel?

13.Sketch a spectrum of bromine ( label the “Y” axis quantitatively but not the “X” )

14.Write the electron configuration of the following.

  1. K b. K+
  1. Ca d. Ca2+
  1. Sc f. Sc2+

Teacher notes:

This activity should be done after “The Atom” activity. You should discuss the break //in the “X” axis and why it is drawn this way.

The following is a more complete explanation of photoelectron spectroscopy. You way wish to us with your honors or advanced students.

We can use mathematics to describe the concept above. We can write this equation:

This equation states that the ionization energy (IE) is equal to the amount of energy coming in (the photon energy, represented by hv) minus the kinetic energy of the electron.

If we have a neutral (uncharged) molecule that is a gas, the photon (hv) ionizes the molecule (M), and leaves the molecule in a positively charged ion state (Mi+). We also now have a free electron (e-):

We can rearrange the mathematics to show that the ionization energy is also a measure of the difference in energy between the positive ion state Mi+ and the initial state of the molecule M.

The difference between the energy found in the bound state (also known as the ground state) and the vacuum level (also known as the excited state) is what we measure in photoelectron spectroscopy, or PES. Spectroscopy is the technique in chemistry where we measure the interactions between light energy (photons) and some molecule or molecular system.

We can measure ionization energies using a number of techniques, including molecular modeling. One of the quantities that can be measured are the energies of the molecular orbitals, or MOs. Two of the MOs are of particular interest: the Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO) and the Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO). These orbitals are the most important in terms of chemical reactivity. If an electron in a molecule is going to leave, it’s probably going to leave from the HOMO. If an electron is going to be added to a molecule, it’s probably going to find its home in the LUMO. Collectively, these orbitals are known as the frontier orbitals (because they are on the “frontier” of chemical reactivity). More importantly, Koopman’s Theorem states this: the value of the HOMO is also the value of the ionization energy. Thus, we can use molecular modeling to calculate the HOMO, and from that, immediately derive the ionization energy.

If the students color code the main energy levels in question 11 it would reinforce the difference between main energy levels and sublevels.

The use of a long piece of paper tape in question 13 would beneficial in helping the students better understand the relative distances between sublevels.

Activity and spectrum graphics taken from the Pogil Project activities.

(Photoelective Graphics adapted from with permission of the author. Photoelectric effect graphic from