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Perfectionism in Relation to Wellbeing among University
Students
Paul Emerson
Submitted as a Psychology Lab Report
Due Date: 05 September 2006
Tutor: Kristi De Young
Class: T6 – Tuesday 1130-1330
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Abstract
In this study, the relationship between perfectionism and psychological wellbeing was examined along with different dimensions of perfectionism and psychological wellbeing among a sample of university students, 52 males and 146 females, currently undertaking an undergraduate or postgraduate psychology or nursing course. The two hypotheses indicating that there would be a positive correlation between two dimensions of Perfectionism (Concern over Mistakes and Doubts about Actions) and Psychopathology (Depression, Anxiety and Stress) were supported. In addition, a third hypothesis indicating that there would be a positive correlation between Perfectionism (Total) and Psychopathology (Depression, Anxiety and Stress) was also supported. It was concluded that a moderate positive correlation existed between perfectionism and psychological wellbeing among university students, as indicated by the results.
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Previously, theorists haddescribed perfectionism as a unidimensional construct Burns, 1980 and Pact (1984, cited in Antony, Purdon, Huta & Swinson, 1998), and it has only been in recent years that investigators have begun to consider the multidimensions of perfectionism. This, in turn, has profoundly advanced research designed to investigate the relationship between perfectionism and various psychopathological disorders eg. depression. Frost et al. (1990, cited in Antony et al., 1998) were the first to develop a measure designed specifically to access the six dimensions of perfectionism,which subsequently was referred to as the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS).
‘Perfectionism is one aspect of personality which has been viewed as a factor involved in the cause of depression, anxiety and stress. There is a growing body of evidence underpinning the proposal that individuals who are perfectionists also tend to display high levels of depressive symptoms Blatt, 1995 and Flett et al. (1995, cited in Lynd-Stevenson & Hearne, 1999).
In a study by Frost and Showe (1993, cited in Antony et al., 1998), concerns over mistakes and doubts about actions were significantly correlated with compulsive indecisiveness (a symptom often common among sufferers of obsessive compulsive disorder) in undergraduate students. In addition, eating disorder symptoms were associated with concern over mistakes and doubts about actions Minarik & Aherns(1996, cited in Shafron & Mansell, 2001). Experimental findings also indicated that eating difficulties were associated with conforming to unrealistically high performance expectations of others Pliner and Maddock(1996, cited in Shafron & Mansell, 2001).
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Stober (1998, cited in Khawaja & Armstrong, 2005) conducted a study using a sample of university students and found that two dimensions of perfectionism, concern over mistakes and doubts about actions, merged, as did parental expectations and parental criticism, whilst personal standards and organisation maintained their original format.
The current study was designed to expand upon previous research by investigating the relationship between two independent variables, perfectionism and psychological wellbeing.
It was hypothesised that two dimensions of perfectionism, concern over mistakes and doubts about actions, would positively correlate with psychopathology (depression, anxiety and stress). In addition it was hypothesised that there would be a positive correlation between perfectionism (total) and psychopathology (depression, anxiety and stress).
Method
Participants
The sample consisted of a total of 198 participants, 52 males and 146 females, currently undertaking an undergraduate or postgraduate psychology or nursing course at RMITUniversity. The age range was 18 – 57 years (M = 21.97years, SD = 6.19 years).
Materials
In addition to providing standard demographic information, each participant completed three questionnaires, comprising 75 questions, relating to level of perfectionism, psychological and physical wellbeing.
The 35 item Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale Frost Marten, Lament & Rosenblates (1990) was used to assess the level of perfectionism. Participants rated each item on a 5-point scale, where 1 = ‘strongly disagree” and 5 = ‘strongly agree’. Higher scores indicated higher levels of perfectionism among participants.
The DASS21 was used to assess psychological wellbeing. Participants rated each of the 21 items on a 4-point scale, where 0 = ‘did not apply to me at all’ and 3 = ‘applied to me very much, or most of the time’. Higher scores indicated a higher probability of the existence of depression, anxiety and stress among participants.
The 19 item Somatic and Emotional Experience Inventory Saboonchi & Lundhs (2003) was used to assess physical wellbeing. Participants rated each item on a 4-point scale, where 0 = ‘did not apply to me at all’ and 3 = ‘applied to me very much, or most of the time’. Higher scores indicated a higher probability of the existence of certain common physical ailments among participants.
Procedure
Participants completed a questionnaire package on Tuesday, 25 July 2006, at RMITUniversity, Melbourne, Australia. There were four parts to the package which took approximately 10 minutes to complete. Participants were advised in writing by the researcher that the purpose of the research was to investigate perfectionism and wellbeing among psychology and nursing students currently undertaking an undergraduate or postgraduate psychology or nursing course. Written consent was not specifically obtained in this instance due to the anonymous nature of the collection of the data. Instead, consent was assumed to have been given by the participants’ completion and return of the questionnaire materials.
The responses which participants provided remained confidential. The information was de-identified and only group results published.
Results
As shown in Tables 1 and 2, the results of the study indicated significantly higher mean values of depression, anxiety and stress recorded among university students, compared with the general population, combined with higher standard deviations among university students. In addition, male students recorded slightly higher mean values of depression, anxiety and stress compared with female students.
Table 1
Psychological Wellbeingby Gender as measured by Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale
Participant’s Sex / DASS Depression / DASS Anxiety / DASS Stress
Male / M = 10.51
N = 51
SD = 9.71 / M = 9.81
N = 52
SD = 8.55 / M = 16.56
N = 50
SD = 10.74
Female / M = 9.78
N = 145
SD = 8.91 / M = 8.57
N = 144
SD = 7.77 / M = 15.13
N = 141
SD = 9.19
Total / M = 9.97
N = 196
SD = 9.10 / M = 8.90
N = 196
SD = 7.98 / M = 15.51
N = 191
SD = 9.61
Table 2
DASS Normative Sample Means and Standard Deviations by Gender
Participant’s Sex / Depression / Anxiety / StressMale / M = 6.55
N = 1044
SD = 7.01 / M = 4.60
N = 1044
SD = 4.80 / M = 9.93
N = 1044
SD = 7.66
Female / M = 6.14
N = 1870
SD = 6.92 / M = 4.80
N = 1.870
SD = 5.03 / M = 10.29
N = 1,870
SD = 8.16
Overall / M = 6.34
N = 2.914
SD = 6.97 / M = 4.70
N = 2,914
SD = 4.91 / M = 10.11
N = 2,914
SD = 7.91
Table 3 shows the severity ratings for depression, anxiety and stress among university students and the general population, with university students recording higher severity ratings of depression, anxiety and stress compared with the general population.
Table 3
DASS Severity Ratings
Percentage / Depression / Anxiety / GrossNormal / 0 – 78 / 0 – 9 * / 0 – 7 * / 0 – 14 *
Mild / 78 – 87 / 10 – 13 ** / 8 – 9 ** / 15 – 18 **
Moderate / 87 – 95 / 14 – 20 / 10 – 14 / 19 – 25
Severe / 95 – 98 / 21 – 27 / 15 – 19 / 26 – 33
Extremely Severe / 98 – 100 / 28 + / 20 + / 34 +
*General Public
**University Students
Table 4 shows there was a moderately positive correlation between Perfectionism (Concern over Mistakes; CM) and Psychopathology (Depression, Anxiety and Stress), r(186) = .52, p < .01, as hypothesised.
There was a moderately positive correlation between Perfectionism (Doubts about Actions; DM) and Psychopathology (Depression, Anxiety and Stress), r(188) = .53, p < .01, as hypothesised.
There was a moderately positive correlation between Perfectionism (Total) and Psychopathology (Depression, Anxiety and Stress), r(186) = .54, p < .01, as hypothesised.
The application of the t- test for the significance of the correlation coefficient indicatedstatistical significance in relation to the two independent variables, perfectionism and psychopathology. As a consequence, the null hypothesiswas rejected.
Table 4
Correlation between Dimensions of Perfectionism and Psychopathology(Depression, Anxiety and Stress)
/ DASS - TOTr / Sig. (2-tailed) / N
MPS - CM / .52 (**) / .000 / 187
MPS – DA / .53 (**) / .000 / 189
MPS – TOT / .54 (**) / .000 / 187
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Note: CM = Concern over Mistakes; DA = Doubts about Actions; r = Pearson Correlation; N – Number of Participants; MPS = Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale; DASS = Depression Anxiety Stress Scale; TOT = Total
Discussion
The aim of the study was to examine the relationship between perfectionism and psychological wellbeing among a sample of university students. The results supported three hypotheses that there would be a positive correlation between perfectionism and psychopathology (depression, anxiety and stress).
The results of the current study confirmed from previous research Frost et al. (1990, cited in Khawaja & Armstrong, 2005) and Adkins and Parker (1996, cited in Lynd-Stevenson & Hearne, 1999)that the most prominent feature of perfectionism is high standards, which accompany tendencies to be concerned over mistakes and doubts about one’s actions.
As a consequence, perfectionists tend to prioritise order, organisation, efficiency and over-emphasise the importance of their parents’ expectations and criticism.
In addition, the study results revealed that university students displayed a higher probability of experiencing depression, anxiety and stress compared with the general population. One explanation for this phenomenon may well be that a portion of university students set unrealistically high standards, rigidly adhering to them, and defining their self-worth in terms of achieving these standards.
Finally, the study results revealed slightly higher mean and standard deviation scores in relation to DASS depression, anxiety and stress among male students compared with female students. This result may reflect the case among the general population, whereby males generally are more prone to the development of psychopathological disorders compared with females, and are by nature, less likely to actively seek professional counselling.
In this study the correlation between perfectionism and wellbeing among a sample of university students was examined. The results indicated a very weak to moderate correlation between perfectionism and wellbeing.
The results of the present study may aid in the advancement of the mechanisms and treatment of psychopathological disorders, however, further research investigating the multidimensions of perfectionism and the relationship to disorders, such as depression, is required.
This research may aid in the provision of support to tertiary students who have a predisposition to neurotic perfectionism and as a consequence, develop psychopathological disorders which may impinge upon academic performance. Ultimately, this may help prevent one reason why students elect to discontinue their tertiary course.
Word Count:1633
References
Antony, M.M., Purdon, C.L., Huta, V., & Swinson, R.P. (1998). Dimensions of perfectionism across the anxiety disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 1143-1154.
Khawaja, N.G., & Armstrong, K.A. (2005). Factor structure and psychometric properties of the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale: Developing shorter versions using an Australian sample. Australian Journal of Psychology, 57, (2), 129-138.
Lynd-Stevenson, R.M., & Hearne, C.M. (1999). Perfectionism and depressive affect: the pros and cons od being a perfectionist. Personality and Individual Differences, 26, 549-562.
Shafron, R., & Mansell, W. (2001). PERFECTIONISM AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: A REVIEW OF RESEARCH AND TREATMENT. Clinical Psychology Review, 21, (6), 879-906.