Perennial Crop Species by Climate Type
An online supplement to The Carbon Farming Solution by Eric Toensmeier
This should be considered a first step in selecting species for a given region. As noted in the text, always begin by investigating the native species of the region in question. This should be no means be considered a definitive list. Nor does it cover perennial fruits, vegetables, timber, pasture, and other important categories.
Many of these species will undoubtedly perform well outside of the ranges posted here – notably in tropical highlands and Mediterranean climates, in which species from warm temperate and subtropical climates often, but not always, thrive. I’ve only included species in these categories when in cases of documented proof or personal observation.
In contrast others will perform well in only a sub-range of the climates where they are listed. For example, some can handle only the warmer or colder portions of a given climate, or only the wetter end of semi-arid for example. Note also that irrigation can enable production of a wider range of crops in arid and semi-arid regions.
Each climate includes species in the following categories:
Perennial staple crops: basic starch, balanced carbohydrates, protein, protein-oil, oil, sugar
Perennial industrial crops: biomass, industrial starch, industrial oil, hydrocarbons, fiber, other industrial
Agroforestry services includes windbreaks, alley cropping, and more.
Tropical Humid
Basic Starch
Agave cantala, Artocarpus altilis, A. heterophyllus, A. integer, A. mariannensis, Dioscorea bulbifera, Ensete ventricosum, Eugeissona utilis, Metroxylon amicarum, M. sagu, Musa acuminata.
Balanced Carbohydrates
Albizia saman, Araucaria angustifolia, A. bidwillii, Artocarpus camansi, A. heterophyllus, A. integer, A. mariannensis, Bactris gasipaes, Barringtonia edulis, B. novae-hiberniae, B. procera, Bauhinia thonningii, Brosimum alicastrum, B. utile, Castanopsis inermis, C. javanica, Coix lacryma-jobi, Distichlis palmeri, Faidherbia albida, Gnetum africanum, G. gnemon, Inocarpus fagifer, Oryza hybrids, O. longistaminata, Porteresia coarctata, Rhynchoryza subulata, Sorghum hybrids, Sporobolus fimbriatus, Treculia africana, Urochloa mosambicensis, Zea hybrids, Zizania latifolia.
Protein
Abelmoschus esculentus, Acacia holosericea, Albizia lucidior, Brassica carinata, Brosimum alicastrum, B. paranarioides, B. utile, Cajanus cajan, Canavalia gladiata, Cnidoscolus aconitifolius, Gnetum africanum, G. gnemon, Lablab purpureus, Manilkara huberi, Moringa oleifera, M. stenopetala, Phaseolus polystachios, P. lunatus, Psophocarpus tetragonobolus, Sphenostylis stenocarpa, Treculia africana.
Protein-Oil
Abelmoschus esculentus, Adenanthera pavonina, Anacardium occidentale, Bertholletia excelsa, Blighia sapida, Buchanania cochinchinensis, Caesalpinia digyna, Caryodendron orinocense, Chrysobalanus icaco, Dacryodes edulis, Entada phaseoleoides, Jatropha curcas, Juglans olanchana, Lecythis corrugata, L. minor, L. pisonis, L. zabucajo, Pachira glabra, Pentaclethra macrophylla, Plukenetia conophora, P. volubilis, Psophocarpus tetragonobolus, Ricinodendron heudelotii, Sclerocarya birreya, T. pedata, Terminalia catappa, T. kaernbachii.
Oil
Abelmoschus esculentus, Acrocomia aculeata, Adenanthera pavonina, Afraegle paniculata, Allanblackia floribunda, A. parviflora, A. stuhlmannii, Astrocaryum vulgare, Attalea funifera, A. maripa, A. speciosa, Bactris gasipaes, Borassus aethiopum, B. flabellifer, Brassica carinata, Canarium indicum, C. luzonicum, C. ovatum, C. schweinfurtii, Caryocar nuciferum, C. villosum, Cocos nucifera, Elaeis guineensis, E. oleifera, Entada phaseoleoides, Gossypium arboreum burmanicum, G. arboreum indicum, G. arboreum soudanense, G. barbadense braziliense, G. barbadense darwinii, G. herbaceum acerifolium, G. herbaceum africanum, G. hirsutum marie-galante, G. hirsutum punctatum, G. hirsutum taitense, Gustavia superba, Irvingia gabonensis, Iryanthera laevis, Leopoldinia piassaba, Macadamia hildebrandii, M. integrifolia, Mauritia flexuosa, Mesua ferrea, Moringa oleifera, M. stenopetala, Oenocarpus bataua, O. distichus, Pandanus conoideus, Persea americana, Raphia hookeri, Schleichera oleosa, Syagrus coronata, Theobroma cacao, T. grandiflorum, Vitellaria paradoxa.
Sugar
Arenga pinnata, Borassus aethiopum, B. flabellifer, Caryota urens, Cassia fistula, C. grandis, Cocos nucifera, Corypha utan, Nypa fruticans, Oenocarpus distichus, Raphia hookeri, Saccharum hybrids, S. officinarum, Sorghum hybrids.
Biomass
Acacia angustissima, Albizia lebbeck, Arundo donax, Azadirachta indica, Bambusa spp., Bursera simaruba, Calliandra calothyrsus, Chrysopogon zizanoides, Cortaderia selloana, Dendrocalamus spp., Echinochloa polystachya, Eucalyptus brassiana, E. camaldulensis, E. citriodora, E. grandis, E. tereticornis, E. urophylla, Eulaliopsis binata, Gigantochloa spp., Gliricidia sepium, Guadua angustifolia, Gynerium sagittatum, Hibiscus tilliaceus, Inga vera, Leucaena leucocephala, Melia azederach, Morus alba, Oxytenanthera abyssynica, Pennisetum purpureum, Phragmites australis, Pithecellobium dulce, Pongamia pinnata, Saccharum hybrids, S. officinarum, Sesbania grandiflora, S. sesban, Trema orientalis.
Industrial Starch
Areca catechu, Caesalpinia digyna, Castanospermum australe, Cycas spp., Dioscorea bulbifera, Encephalartos spp., Hyphaene thebaica, Macrozamia spp., Metroxylon amicarum, Microcycas calocoma, Phytelephas macrocarpa, Zamia spp.
Industrial Oil
Aleurites mollucanus, Anacardium occidentale, Attalea speciosa, Azadirachta indica, Caesalpinia digyna, Ceiba pentandra, Croton tiglium, Cuphea micropetala, Hevea brasiliensis, Jatropha curcas, Litsea calophylla, L. glutinosa, Melia azederach, Phytelephas macrocarpa, Pongamia pinnata, Ricinus communis, Sapindus saponaria, Semecarpus anacardium, Simarouba amara, Trichilia emetica, Vernicia montana, Virola sebifera.
Hydrocarbons
Agathis australis, Artocarpus altilis, A. integer, Asclepias currasavica, Brosimum alicastrum, B. utile, Calotropis giganteus, C. procera, Castilla elastica, C. ulei, Chiococca alba, Copaifera langsdorfii, C. multijuga, C. officinalis, Couma macrocarpa, C. utilis, Croton tiglium, Cryptostegia grandiflora, Daniellia ogea, Daniellia oliveri, Dipterocarpus alatus, D. gracilis, D. grandiflorus, D. kerrii, Dyera costulata, Ficus annulata, F. elastica, F. racemosa, Funtumia elastica, Garcinia hanburyi, G. xanthochymus, Guibourtia copallifera, Hancornia speciosa, Hevea benthamiana, H. brasiliensis, Hymenaea verrucosa, H. courbaril, Landolphia heudelotii, L. kirkii, Manihot caerulescens, M. carthaginensis ssp. glaziovii, M. dichotoma, M. heptaphylla, Manilkara bidentata, M. huberi, Palaquium gutta, Payena leeri, Pinus caribaea, P. elliottii, P. massoniana, P. merkusii, P. oocarpa, Pouteria guianensis, Shorea javanica, Vernicia montana, Willughbeia coriacea, W. edulis.
Fiber
Abelmoschus esculentus, Abroma augusta, Acrocomia aculeata, Adenanthera pavonina, Aechmea magdalenae, Agave cantala, A. fourcroydes, A. lechuguilla, A. sisalana, A. vivipera, A. comosus, A. pinnata, Artocarpus altilis, Asclepias currasavica, Attalea funifera, Bixa orellana, Boehmeria nivea, Bombax ceiba, Borassus flabellifer, Bromelia karatas, B. pinguin, B. serra, Broussonetia papyrifera, Calotropis giganteus, C. procera, Caryota urens, Ceiba aesculifolia, C. pentandra, Clappertonia ficifolia, Cocos nucifera, Corypha utan, Cryptostegia grandiflora, Elaeis guineensis, Ensete ventricosum, Funtumia elastica, Furcraea acaulis, F. andina, F. cabuya, F. foetida, F. hexapetala, Gnetum gnemon, Gossypium arboreum burmanicum, G. arboreum indicum, G. arboreum soudanense, G. barbadense braziliense, G. barbadense darwinii, G. herbaceum acerifolium, G. herbaceum africanum, G. hirsutum marie-galante, G. hirsutum punctatum, G. hirsutum taitense, Hibiscus radiatus, H. tilliaceus, Leopoldinia piassaba, Mauritia flexuosa, Melaleuca alternifolia, Metroxylon sagu, Musa acuminata, M. textilis, Oenocarpus bataua, Pueraria phaseoloides, Raphia hookeri, R. vinifera, Sansevieria hyacinthoides, S. roxburghiana, S. trifasciata, S. zeylandica, Senna auriculata, Sida rhombifolia, Trema orientalis, Wissadula periplocifolia.
Other Industrial
Acacia catechu, Afraegle paniculata, Agathis australis, Albizia lebbeck, Aleurites mollucanus, Azadirachta indica, Bixa orellana, Caesalpinia digyna, C. sappan, Casuarina equisetifolia, Cinchona officinalis, C. pubescens, Copaifera langsdorfii, C. multijuga, C. officinalis, Copernicia prunifera, Duboisia myoporoides, Entada phaseoleoides, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Guibourtia copallifera, Hyphaene thebaica, Indigofera suffruticosa, I. tinctoria, Melaleuca alternifolia, Melia azederach, Metroxylon amicarum, Morella cerifera, Moringa oleifera, Nicotiana glauca, Persea americana, Phytelephas macrocarpa, Pithecellobium dulce, Ricinus communis, Saccharum officinarum, Sapindus saponaria, Semecarpus anacardium, Senna auriculata, Syagrus coronata, Tephrosia vogelii, Trema orientalis, Trichilia emetica, Vernicia montana.
Agroforestry Services
Acacia angustissima, A. catechu, A. leucophloea, A. koa, A. koaia, Acanthocereus tetragonus, Adenanthera pavonina, Agave cantala, A. fourcroydes, A. lechuguilla, A. sisalana, A. vivipera, Albizia lebbeck, A. saman, Alocasia macrorrhizos, Anacardium occidentale, Ananas comosus, Arachis pintoi, Artocarpus altilis, Arundo donax, Azadirachta indica, Bactris gasipaes, Bambusa spp., Bauhinia thonningii, Bixa orellana, Boehmeria nivea, Bromelia karatas, B. pinguin, B. serra, Brosimum alicastrum, Bursera simaruba, Cajanus cajan, Calliandra calothyrsus, Calopogonium caeruleum, C. mucunoides, Cassia fistula, C. grandis, Castilla elastica, Casuarina equisetifolia, Chrysobalanus icaco, Chrysopogon zizanoides, Cinnamomum camphora, Cnidoscolus aconitifolius, Cocos nucifera, Coix lacryma-jobi, Dendrocalamus spp., Desmodium cinereum, D. intortum, D. triflorum, D. uncinatum, Enterolobium cyclocarpum, Erythrina subumbrans, E. poeppigiana, Euphorbia lactea, E. neriifolia, Faidherbia albida, Ficus elastica, F. racemosa, Flemingia macrophylla, Furcraea acaulis, F. andina, F. cabuya, F. foetida, F. hexapetala, Gigantochloa spp., Gliricidia sepium, Guadua angustifolia, Guazuma ulmifolia, Hevea brasiliensis, Hibiscus tilliaceus, Hyphaene thebaica, Indigofera suffruticosa, Inga edulis, I. vera, Inocarpus fagifer, Jatropha curcas, Lablab purpureus, Leucaena leucocephala, Litsea glutinosa, Macadamia integrifolia, Manihot carthaginensis ssp. glaziovii, Metroxylon sagu, Mimosa pudica, Morus alba, Musa acuminata, Newtonia buchananii, Nypa fruticans, Oxytenanthera abyssynica, Panicum maximum, Pennisetum purpureum, Phragmites australis, Pinus elliottii, Pithecellobium dulce, Plukenetia volubilis, Pongamia pinnata, Psophocarpus tetragonobolus, Pueraria phaseoloides, Ricinodendron heudelotii, Ricinus communis, Saccharum hybrids, S. officinarum, Saraca asoca, Schleichera oleosa, Sesbania grandiflora, Stylosanthes guianensis, Tamarindus indica, Tephrosia vogelii, Terminalia catappa, Tithonia diversifolia, Treculia africana, Trema orientalis.
Tropical Semi-Arid
Basic Starch
Agava americana, A. cantala, A. salmiana, A. tequilana.
Balanced Carbohydrates
Albizia saman, Aristida pungens, Astrebla aquamosa, Balanites aegyptiaca, Bauhinia thonningii, Brosimum alicastrum, B. utile, Cordeauxia edulis, Faidherbia albida, Panicum decompositum, P. turgidum, Pennisetum setaceum, Prosopis alba, P. chilensis, P. glandulosa, P. juliflora, P. pallida, Sorghum hybrids, Sporobolus fimbriatus, Urochloa mosambicensis, Zea hybrids.
Protein
Acacia colei, A. cowleana, A. holosericea, A. victoriae, Adansonia digitata, Bauhinia petersiana, Brassica carinata, Brosimum alicastrum, B. utile, Cajanus cajan, Canavalia gladiata, Cnidoscolus aconitifolius, Guibourtia coleosperma, Lablab purpureus, Moringa oleifera, M. stenopetala, Morus alba, Parkinsonia aculeata, Phaseolus lunatus.
Protein-Oil
Abelmoschus esculentus, Adansonia digitata, Anacardium occidentale, Balanites aegyptiaca, Bauhinia petersiana, Buchanania cochinchinensis, Caesalpinia digyna, Citrullus colocynthus, Crescentia alata, Crescentia cujete, Dacryodes edulis, Guibourtia coleosperma, Jatropha curcas, Pachira glabra, Parkia biglobosa, Salvadora persica, Schinziophyton rautanenii, Sclerocarya birreya, Terminalia catappa.
Oil
Abelmoschus esculentus, Argania spinosa, Borassus aethiopum, B. flabellifer, Brassica carinata, Caryocar brasiliense, Cocos nucifera, Gossypium arboreum burmanicum, G. arboreum indicum, G. arboreum soudanense, G. barbadense braziliense, G. barbadense darwinii, G. herbaceum acerifolium, G. herbaceum africanum, G. hirsutum marie-galante, G. hirsutum punctatum, G. hirsutum taitense, Jubaea chilensis, Macadamia integrifolia, Moringa oleifera, M. peregrina, M. stenopetala, Oenocarpus distichus, Olea europea, Parinari curatellifolia, Schleichera oleosa, Vitellaria paradoxa.
Sugar
Agave americana, A. tequilana, Borassus aethiopum, B. flabellifer, Cocos nucifera, Oenocarpus distichus, Phoenix dactylifera, Sorghum hybrids.
Biomass
Acacia angustissima, A. saligna, A. senegal, A. tortilis, Albizia lebbeck, Arundo donax, Azadirachta indica, Balanites aegyptiaca, Bursera simaruba, Calliandra calothyrsus, Chrysopogon zizanoides, Colophospermum mopane, Cortaderia selloana, Dendrocalamus asper, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E. citriodora, E. microtheca, E. tereticornis, Gigantochloa verticillata, Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala, Melia azederach, Morus alba, Oxytenanthera abyssynica, Parkinsonia aculeata, Pennisetum purpureum, Pithecellobium dulce, Prosopis glandulosa, P. juliflora, P. pallida, Sesbania sesban.
Industrial Starch
Caesalpinia digyna, Castanospermum australe, Cycas spp., Encephalartos spp., Hyphaene thebaica, Macrozamia spp., Microcycas calocoma, Zamia spp.
Industrial Oil
Aleurites mollucanus, Anacardium occidentale, Azadirachta indica, Caesalpinia digyna, Ceiba pentandra, Croton tiglium, Jatropha curcas, Licania rigida, Melia azederach, Parinari curatellifolia, Ricinus communis, Sapindus saponaria, Semecarpus anacardium, Terminalia bellirica, Trichilia emetica, Vernicia montana.
Hydrocarbons
Brosimum alicastrum, B. utile, Calotropis giganteus, C. procera, Chiococca alba, Croton tiglium, Euphorbia abyssinica, E. intisy, E. tirucalli, Ficus racemosa, Hancornia speciosa, Pinus caribaea, P. elliottii, P. merkusii, Pittosporum undulatum, Vernicia montana.
Fiber
Abelmoschus esculentus, Adansonia digitata, Agave cantala, A. fourcroydes, A. lechuguilla, A. sisalana, A. vivipera, Ananas comosus, Bixa orellana, Borassus flabellifer, Bromelia karatas, B. pinguin, B. serra, Calotropis giganteus, C. procera, Ceiba aesculifolia, C. pentandra, Cocos nucifera, Furcraea acaulis, F. andina, F. cabuya, F. foetida, F. hexapetala, Gossypium arboreum burmanicum, G. arboreum indicum, G. arboreum soudanense, G. barbadense braziliense, G. barbadense darwinii, G. herbaceum acerifolium, G. herbaceum africanum, G. hirsutum marie-galante, G. hirsutum punctatum, G. hirsutum taitense, Pavonia spinifex, Phoenix dactylifera, Sansevieria hyacinthoides, S. roxburghiana, S. trifasciata, S. zeylandica, Senna auriculata, Sida rhombifolia.
Other Industrial
Acacia catechu, A. nilotica, A. saligna, A. senegal, A. seyal, A. tortilis, Albizia lebbeck, Aleurites mollucanus, Azadirachta indica, Bixa orellana, Caesalpinia digyna, Casuarina equisetifolia, Copernicia prunifera, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Hyphaene thebaica, Lawsonia inermis, Melia azederach, Moringa oleifera, Nicotiana glauca, Nopalea cochenillifera, Opuntia tomentosa, Pithecellobium dulce, Prosopis juliflora, Ricinus communis, Sapindus saponaria, Semecarpus anacardium, Senna auriculata, Trichilia emetica, Vernicia montana.
Agroforestry Services
Acacia angustissima, A. catechu, A. koaia, A. leucophloea, A. nilotica, A. saligna, A. senegal, A. seyal, A. tortilis, Acanthocereus tetragonus, Adansonia digitata, Agave cantala, A. fourcroydes, A. lechuguilla, A. salmiana, A. sisalana, A. tequilana, A. vivipera, Albizia lebbeck, A. saman, Anacardium occidentale, Ananas comosus, Arundo donax, Atriplex semibaccata, Azadirachta indica, Balanites aegyptiaca, Bauhinia thonningii, Bixa orellana, Bromelia karatas, B. pinguin, B. serra, Brosimum alicastrum, Bursera simaruba, Cajanus cajan, Calliandra calothyrsus, Calopogonium caeruleum, Casuarina equisetifolia, Centrosema pubescens, Cereus hildmannianus, C. repandus, Chamaecrista rotundifolia, Chrysopogon zizanoides, Cnidoscolus aconitifolius, Cocos nucifera, Cordeauxia edulis, Cylindropuntia spp., Dendrocalamus asper, Desmodium intortum, Enterolobium cyclocarpum, Erythrina sandwicensis, Euphorbia lactea, E. neriifolia, E. tirucalli, Faidherbia albida, Ficus racemosa, Furcraea acaulis, F. andina, F. cabuya, F. foetida, F. hexapetala, Gigantochloa verticillata, Gliricidia sepium, Hyphaene thebaica, Inga edulis, Jatropha curcas, Lablab purpureus, Leucaena leucocephala, Macadamia integrifolia, Mimosa pudica, Morus alba, Nopalea cochenillifera, Opuntia dillenii, O. tomentosa, Oxytenanthera abyssynica, Pachycereus hollianus, Parkia biglobosa, Parkinsonia aculeata, Pennisetum purpureum, Pereskia sacharosa, Phoenix dactylifera, Pinus elliottii, Pithecellobium dulce, Prosopis africana, P. alba, P. chilensis, P. cineraria, P. glandulosa, P. juliflora, P. pallida, P. tamarugo, Ricinus communis, Schleichera oleosa, Senna siamea, S. singueana, Stenocereus griseus, S. stellatus, Stylosanthes guianensis, Tamarindus indica, Terminalia catappa, Tithonia diversifolia.
Tropical Arid
Basic Starch
Agava americana, A. cantala, A. salmiana, A. tequilana.
Balanced Carbohydrates
Aristida pungens, Balanites aegyptiaca, Cordeauxia edulis, Panicum turgidum, Prosopis alba, P. chilensis, P. glandulosa, P. juliflora, P. pallida.
Protein
Acacia cowleana, A. victoriae, Cnidoscolus aconitifolius, Parkinsonia aculeata.
Protein-Oil
Acanthosicyos horridus, Adansonia digitata, Balanites aegyptiaca, Citrullus colocynthus, Salvadora persica.
Oil
Argania spinosa, Gossypium hirsutum marie-galante, G. hirsutum punctatum, G. hirsutum taitense, Moringa perigrina.
Sugar
Agave americana, A. tequilana.
Biomass
Acacia saligna, A. senegal, A. tortilis, Azadirachta indica, Balanites aegyptiaca, Colophospermum mopane, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E. microtheca, Parkinsonia aculeata, Prosopis glandulosa, P. juliflora, P. pallida.
Industrial Starch
Castanospermum australe, Cycas spp., Encephelartos spp., Macrozamia spp, Zamia spp.
Industrial Oil
Azadirachta indica, Croton tiglium, Ricinus communis.
Hydrocarbons
Calotropis giganteus, C. procera, Croton tiglium, Euphorbia abyssinica, E. tirucalli.
Fiber
Adansonia digitata, Agave cantala, A. lechuguilla, Calotropis giganteus, C. procera, Gossypium hirsutum marie-galante, G. hirsutum punctatum, G. hirsutum taitense.
Other Industrial
Acacia nilotica, A. saligna, A. senegal, A. seyal, A. tortilis, Azadirachta indica, Casuarina equisetifolia, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Nopalea cochenillifera, Opuntia tomentosa, Prosopis juliflora, Ricinus communis.
Agroforestry Services
Acacia nilotica, A. saligna, A. senegal, A. seyal, A. tortilis, Adansonia digitata, Agave cantala, A. lechuguilla, A. salmiana, A. tequilana, Atriplex semibaccata, Azadirachta indica, Balanites aegyptiaca, Casuarina equisetifolia, Cereus hildmannianus, C. repandus, Cnidoscolus aconitifolius, Cordeauxia edulis, Cylindropuntia spp., Euphorbia lactea, E. tirucalli, Nopalea cochenillifera, Opuntia tomentosa, Pachycereus hollianus, Parkinsonia aculeata, Pereskia sacharosa, Prosopis africana, P. alba, P. chilensis, P. cineraria, P. glandulosa, P. juliflora, P. pallida, P. tamarugo, Ricinus communis, Stenocereus griseus, S. stellatus.