PAST EXAM QUESTIONS AND MARK SCHEMES ON EACH TOPIC OF ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
PAST QUESTIONS
Pseudoscience and scientific status of Parapsychology
- Outline twodifferences between science and pseudoscience. (4 marks)
- Explainwhatismeantbypseudoscience. (4marks)
ESP & Methodological issues
- Duringapublicdemonstration of'psychicpowers',apsychologistwitnessedwhatappearedtobetheabilityofonepersontoreadthethoughtsofanother.
Explainhowthepsychologist couldusetheGanzfeldprocedure toinvestigatethis apparentability. (6 marks)
- Outline and evaluate the Ganzfeld technique as a way of investigating ESP.(4 marks + 4 marks)
PK and methodological issues
- Describeonewayinwhichresearchershavestudiedpsychokinesis. (4marks)
- Outline two methodological issues involved in the study of psychokinesis. (4 marks)
- Discussmethodologicalissuesinthestudyofpsychokinesis. (4marks+6marks)
(NOTE: this is an old question before the specification changed so it is unlikely but still possible for this style of question on PK)
Coincidence and Probability Judgement:
- Harry had a dream last night about his aunt Susan. She emigrated to Canada yearsago and he has not heard from her for three years. This morning, he received a letter from his aunt saying that she was going to visit. He thinks that he might have psychic powers.
How might psychologists explain Harry’s experience? Use your knowledge of thepsychology of coincidence in your answer. (4 marks)
- Jo and Frankie are watching a television programme about paranormal action. A stage performer is apparently using the power of his mind to influence dice thrown by another person. The person rolls a pair of dice three times and rolls a double six each time. Jo gets very excited. Jo shouts: “Wow! That is amazing. I think I could train myself to use the power of my mind to make things happen.” Frankie replies: “Calm down. It’s just a coincidence. Nobody can use the power of their mind to influence events like that.”Frankie thinks that it is just a coincidence. Jo does not agree.
Explain what is meant by coincidence in this context. (2 marks)
- Most people have several dreams each night, and a small number of these dreams come true a week or so later. Former American president, Abraham Lincoln, is believed to have dreamt of his assassination, two weeks before it happened.
Some people interpret dreams coming true as evidence for the paranormal. However, others assume that probability or coincidence can explain this anomalous experience.
Explain why some people see dreams which later come true as evidence for the paranormal, whereas other people do not. Use your knowledge of probability judgements and/or coincidence in your answer. (10 marks)
- Some researchers consider that there is a link between poor reasoning skills and belief in the paranormal.
Using your knowledge of research in this area, explain why some researchers mightthink there is a link between poor reasoning and strong belief in the paranormal.
(3 marks)
(NOTE: this is an old question before the specification changed so it is unlikely but still possible for this style of question on coincidence and probability judgement)
Explanations for Magical thinking & superstitious behaviour
- Magical thinking is a common type of anomalistic experience. Estate agents have great difficulty selling houses where a murder or other tragedy has occurred, even when the asking price is below what the house is worth. Workers in dangerous occupations, such as deep-sea fishermen, often engage in elaborate rituals before going to sea.
How would a psychologist explain the examples of magical thinking shown in the extract above? (10 marks)
- Outline one explanation for superstitious behaviour.[4 marks]
- LeonworeagreenT-shirtwhenhesatamockGCSEexamandgotanunexpectedlygoodresult. SincethenhehasalwayswornthesameT-shirtwhenhehashadtositanexam. ThismorningheisfeelingdistressedbecausehecannotfindhisT-shirtandhehasanA-levelpsychology examtoday.
Howmightapsychologist explainLeon'ssuperstitiousbehaviour? (5marks)
Personality factors
- Whathasresearchshownaboutpersonalityfactorsunderlying anomalousexperience?(4marks)
- LeonworeagreenT-shirtwhenhesatamockGCSEexamandgotanunexpectedlygoodresult. SincethenhehasalwayswornthesameT-shirtwhenhehashadtositanexam. ThismorningheisfeelingdistressedbecausehecannotfindhisT-shirtandhehasanA-levelpsychology examtoday.
Abbie,Leon'sfriend,cannotunderstand whyheissoupset. Shehasworkedhardandrevisedthoroughly anddoesnotfeelthatsheneedsa T-shirtoranythingelsetogetherthroughtheexam.
Suggesthowpersonalityand/or other factorsmightexplainwhyAbbiedoesnothave anomalousbeliefs. (5marks)
- JoandFrankiearewatchingatelevisionprogrammeaboutparanormalaction.Astageperformerisapparentlyusingthepowerofhismindtoinfluencedicethrownbyanotherperson. Thepersonrollsapairofdicethreetimesandrollsadoublesixeachtime.
Jogetsveryexcited.
Joshouts:"Wow! Thatisamazing. I thinkIcouldtrainmyselftousethepowerofmymindtomake thingshappen."
Frankiereplies:"Calmdown. It'sjustacoincidence.Nobodycanusethepoweroftheirmindtoinfluenceeventslikethat."
Frankiethinksthatitisjustacoincidence. Jodoesnotagree.
JoandFrankieinterpretthesameexperiencedifferently. Useyourknowledgeofpersonalityfactorstoexplainwhypeopleinterpretanomalousexperiencesdifferently. (4marks)
- HarryhadadreamlastnightabouthisauntSusan.SheemigratedtoCanadayearsagoandhehasnotheardfromherforthreeyears.Thismorning,hereceivedaletterfromhisauntsayingthatshewasgoingtovisit.Hethinksthathemighthavepsychic powers.
DiscusshowHarry'sanomalousexperiencecanbeexplainedbypersonalityfactors. (6marks)
OBE, NDE & Psychic healing
- Discuss research into out of body experiences. [4 marks + 6 marks]
- Outlineandevaluatepsychological researchintobeliefinout-of-body experiencesand/or near-deathexperiences. (4marks +6marks)
- Discuss what research has shown about psychic healing. (4 marks + 6 marks)
- Discuss one or more explanations of psychic mediumship. (4 marks + 6 marks)
MARK SCHEMES
Pseudoscience and scientific status of Parapsychology
Outline twodifferences between science and pseudoscience. (4 marks)
AO1 = 4 marks
AO1 credit is awarded for an explanation of two differences between science and pseudoscience. Pseudoscience actually means ‘false science’. Pseudoscientific explanations can be difficult to identify because they are presented as being scientific even though they do not meet the criteria for true science.
There are many ways in which science and pseudoscience vary and credit should be awarded to any relevant differences. Likely material includes:
Scientific findings are subjected to peer review before publication. Results of pseudoscience are published without peer review often in newspapers
Science requires that experiments should be replicable but the results of many pseudoscientific studies cannot be replicated
In science, hypotheses are formulated then data is gathered to test the hypothesis. In pseudoscience, data is collected first then explanations are formulated to fit observations
In science, key terms are defined precisely but in pseudoscience, specialist terms (eg ‘aura’) are used vaguely and not clearly operationalised.
Students are asked to explain two differences. A balance between the two is not required for top band marks. Those who explain one in detail are showing partial performance and can receive a maximum mark of 3.
Answers that merely present characteristics of science and pseudoscience, maximum 1 mark.
Explainwhatismeantbypseudoscience. (4marks)
AO1 = 5 marks
This question requires candidates to show their understanding of pseudoscience.
Pseudoscience actually means ‘false science’. Pseudoscientific explanations can be difficult to
identify because they are presented as being scientific even though they do not meet the criteria for true science.
Some of the main characteristics of pseudoscience are as follows:
pseudoscience is not published in peer-reviewed journals but often appears in magazines, newspapers or on the internet
investigations, where they are carried out at all, are often methodologically flawed and not replicable
specialist terms such as ‘energy’ or ‘aura’ are often used vaguely with no clearly operationalised definition
theories are usually unfalsifiable
there is no obvious progress in the accumulation of knowledge
evidence is not sound and arguments are frequently based on emotion or intuition rather than logical reasoning
counter-evidence presented by sceptics is usually dismissed
practitioners of pseudoscience often promote products such as ‘cures’ or self-help books which have no support from scientific research.
There are only 5 marks available here so candidates are not expected to address all of these
issues to access full marks
ESP & Methodological issues
Duringapublicdemonstration of'psychicpowers',apsychologistwitnessedwhatappearedtobetheabilityofonepersontoreadthethoughtsofanother.
Explainhowthepsychologist couldusetheGanzfeldprocedure toinvestigatethis apparentability. (6 marks)
AO2/3 marks = 6 marks
This requires candidates to provide an explanation of how the Ganzfeld procedure could be
used to investigate the ability to read the thoughts of another person.
The Ganzfeld procedure is a technique that has been developed to test an individual’s ability toread the thoughts of another person. It subjects the individual (called the ‘receiver’) to a form of sensory deprivation during which patterned sensory input, both visual and auditory, is prevented. During this period of sensory deprivation, another individual (called the ‘sender’) observes a randomly selected target and tries to send an image of this target mentally to the receiver. The receiver can speak during this period and the experimenter, who should be blind to the target, records what is said. At the end of the deprivation period, the receiver is asked to select the target from a set of images which includes distractor images (usually 3 decoys). If the receiver is really able to read the thoughts of others, he/she should be able, over several trials, to pick the target correctly at greater than chance level.
Outline and evaluate the Ganzfeld technique as a way of investigating ESP. (4 marks + 4 marks)
AO1 = 4 marks
AO1 credit is awarded for an outline of the Ganzfeld ESP procedure. The basic procedureinvolves:
The sensory deprivation of a subject (the receiver) via headphones with white noise,translucent goggles or halved ping-pong balls over the eyes
The sender, who is in another room, chooses one of a selection of (usually) 4 imagesto send telepathically. The choice of image to send should be random
The receiver attempts to ‘read’ the image
At the end of the session the receiver is shown a set of images and asked to selectthe target image from several or to describe the image
If the receiver is really able to read the thoughts of others, he/she should be able topick the target at greater than chance level over several trials
Candidates are expected to show knowledge of the basic procedure but AO1 credit shouldalso be given for description of the auto-Ganzfeld procedure which has greater controlincluding sound-proofing and computerised selection of images.
AO2/AO3 = 4 marks
AO2/AO3 credit is awarded for an evaluation of the Ganzfeld procedure as a way of studying
ESP. Credit should be awarded for any relevant methodological issues including:
possible cheating and lack of control in early studies eg sensory leakage, insecurestorage of images
possible researcher bias eg sceptical researchers v psi believers can influence theamount of elaboration by the receiver
influence of the receivers’ beliefs (the sheep-goat effect)
Candidates may also consider how early problems led to the development of the auto-Ganzfeld procedure and discuss how this is an improvement on the original. This materialcan receive AO2/AO3 credit.
PK and methodological issues
Describeonewayinwhichresearchershavestudiedpsychokinesis. (4marks)
AO1 = 4 marks
PK refers to the supposed ability to move an object by mental intention alone. Note that a definition of PK is not creditworthy nor are descriptions of Ganzfeld.
Candidates are required to outline one way in which researchers have studied psychokinesis (PK). Most likely answers include:
•Dice-rolling: attempts are made to affect the roll of a dice by thought alone (eg Rhine with his dice-rolling machine). Answers could include issues of hit-rates and significance, and the risks of artefact (eg natural biases in the manufacture of dice that may emerge statistically after many rolls). Candidates could focus on a particular study, for example the Radin and Ferrari (1991) meta-analysis of 2.5 million dice throws since the 1930’s.
•Random number generator (RNG) or a random event generator (REG): these use radioactive decay, electronic noise or computer algorithms to generate random events. Participants are asked to bias the output.
•Weaker answers may focus on examples of spontaneous PK, such as poltergeist activity or the activities of ‘celebrity psychics’ such as Uri Geller or Nina Kulagnina. Such answers should be credited in so far as there is a focus on methodology.
Some candidates may take a broader view and outline either micro-PK (very small effects which are detected statistically) or macro-PK (large scale and detectable with the naked eye). This is acceptable.
Where candidates choose to discuss a specific study, the focus should be on the methodology rather than the findings.
Descriptions of ESP are not creditworthy.
Outline two methodological issues involved in the study of psychokinesis. (4 marks)
AO1 = 4 marks
AO1 credit is awarded for an outline of methodological issues involved in the study of psychokinesis. Psychokinesis refers to the (disputed) ability to move objects by the mind. PK was initially accessed via eye only (macro PK) then by the ability to influence the fall of dice. Latterly, it has been superseded by micro PK in which technology is used. Candidates can refer to problems associated with any of these methods of studying PK.
Relevant methodological issues include:
• bias/sleight of hand in dice rolling studies
• experimenter bias in recording macro PK results
• lack of validity of micro PK studies
• problems of replication in all of the above.
Award 1 mark for identifying a methodological issue that would be relevant to PK and a further mark for explanation/ elaboration.
Example: Experimenters could be biased in recording results (1 mark) as they could overestimate the distance an object has moved (2 marks).
Discussmethodologicalissuesinthestudyofpsychokinesis. (4marks+6marks)
AO1 – 4 marks
The specification is clear in its requirement for candidates to have an understanding of methodological issues in the study of anomalous experience. A wide range of issues can be selected, for example, the problem of experimental control, the role of the experimenter (for, example, the problem of experimenter bias or psi inhibition), differences in analysis and reporting. It is important that examiners credit only those points that apply as methodological issues.
Although many issues are common and are, therefore acceptable, candidates should focus on issues which apply to psychokinesis rather than its related phenomenon; ESP. Issues that only relate to ESP are not creditworthy.
AO2/3 = 6 marks
Candidates can address this aspect of the question in a number of ways. They can, for instance, consider the adequacy of attempts to deal with methodological issues, including examples of research, or even question the extreme methodological restraints placed on research in this area compared to other fields of psychological research.
There is no partial performance on this question – answers which only address one issue are likely to be limited and basic
Coincidence and Probability Judgement:
Harry had a dream last night about his aunt Susan. She emigrated to Canada years ago and he has not heard from her for three years. This morning, he received a letter from his aunt saying that she was going to visit. He thinks that he might have psychic powers.
How might psychologists explain Harry’s experience? Use your knowledge of the psychology of coincidence in your answer. (4 marks)
AO2/AO3 = 4 marks
The anomalistic experience in the scenario is a dream which coincidentally comes true. Psychological explanations are based around the idea that humans have a deep-seated need to seek causality. This leads us to see causes for random events which are the product of chance. Basically, people have a poor understanding of probability.
There is a wide range of potential explanations for Harry’s experience/interpretation which candidates could draw on. Some of the more likely include:
• Intellectual ability: people who believe in psychic abilities often have reduced intellectual ability and do not appreciate the role of coincidence.
• Probability misjudgement: people who believe in the paranormal are poorer at estimating chance and coincidence than non-believers. It seems likely from his ready attribution of psychic ability that Harry was already a believer therefore less likely to understand the role of coincidence in his experience.
• The law of truly large numbers: with a large enough sample, the most improbable things happen. Because we all dream at night, this is a sufficiently large sample to ensure that at some point someone’s dream will appear to come true. Since people believe that extreme events are unlikely to happen causality is misattributed to something paranormal.
• Subjective validation: this is a cognitive bias in which people tend to remember the affirming ‘hits’ and overlook the far more frequent ‘misses’. It could explain Harry’s behaviour, as it suggests that he will not remember all the dreams which did not come true but is now very focused on one coincidental event to confirm something that is already part of his belief system
Jo and Frankie are watching a television programme about paranormal action. A stage performer is apparently using the power of his mind to influence dice thrown by another person. The person rolls a pair of dice three times and rolls a double six each time. Jo gets very excited. Jo shouts: “Wow! That is amazing. I think I could train myself to use the power of my mind to make things happen.” Frankie replies: “Calm down. It’s just a coincidence. Nobody can use the power of their mind to influence events like that.” Frankie thinks that it is just a coincidence. Jo does not agree.
Explain what is meant by coincidence in this context. (2 marks)
AO2/AO3 = 2 marks
Coincidence is where two or more events happen by chance to occur at the same time or inclose succession leading to an assumption that they are linked.
Candidates should explain the term in the context of the scenario. Here the co-occurrence ofthese events (three double sixes in succession) could have happened by chance.
Award one mark for an understanding of the term coincidence.
Award two marks for an answer which shows a clear understanding of the term within thecontext of the scenario.
Most people have several dreams each night, and a small number of these dreams come true a week or so later. Former American president, Abraham Lincoln, is believed to have dreamt of his assassination, two weeks before it happened.
Some people interpret dreams coming true as evidence for the paranormal. However, others assume that probability or coincidence can explain this anomalous experience.
Explain why some people see dreams which later come true as evidence for the paranormal, whereas other people do not. Use your knowledge of probability judgements and/or coincidence in your answer. (10 marks)
AO2/AO3 = 10 marks
For AO2/AO3 credit, candidates are required to explain why some people interpret dreams coming true as evidence for the paranormal, whereas others interpret this as a coincidence or arising from statistical probability. This requires application of knowledge about coincidence/probability to the example given in the scenario. This example used (dreams coming true) is sometimes known as pre-cognition or clairvoyance, and candidates could legitimately use these terms.
Paranormal believers, by and large, interpret events like dreams coming true as evidence for clairvoyance. They tend to see patterns between random associations, rather than using explanations based on probability or coincidence. Candidates could legitimately consider what is known about paranormal believers (i.e. why some people appear to be prone to paranormal explanations) referring to relevant personality factors such as fantasy processes, sensation seeking and extraversion.