This is an electronic version of an article published in Social Work Education, Volume 27, Issue 6 September 2008,
pages 613 - 622 . Social Work Education is available online at:
MultimediaLearningand
SocialWork Education
NeilBallantyne
Theuseofmultimediatechnologyinsocialworkeducationpredatestheweb.Innovative
socialworkeducatorshaveincorporatedimages,audio,andvideointothecurriculumto
enrichandenliventeachingeversinceitwaspossibletodoso.Thispaperreviewsthe
literatureonmultimediaapplicationsinsocialworkeducation,andplacesthisworkin
thecontextofthebroadertheoreticalandempiricalliteratureonlearningwith
multimedia.Thedebateabouttheimpactofmediaonlearningisdiscussed;theconcept
of‘affordances’forlearningisintroduced;andresearchinformedprinciplesforeffective
multimediadesignareidentified.
Thepaperconcludesthattherobustnessofsocialworkstudiesofmultimedialearning
wouldbeimprovediftheyweremoreobviouslyconnectedwithconcepts,frameworksand
findingsfromthewiderlearningtechnologyliterature;iftheinstructionalmethodsthey
embodiedweremoreexplicitlydescribedandmoredirectlyfoundedonprinciplesof
effectivemultimediadesign;andifevaluationsconsistentlyincludedappropriate
measuresoflearninggainsaswellaslearners’perceptions.
Keywords:Multimedia;LearningTechnology;Learning;e-Learning
Introduction
Theuseofmultimediatechnologyinsocialworkeducationpredatestheweb.
Innovativesocialworkeducatorshaveincorporatedimages,audio,andvideointothe
curriculumtoenrichandenliventeachingeversinceitwaspossibletodoso.Someof
theseapplicationsofmultimediawithinsocialworkeducationfindtheirwayinto
socialworkjournals,usuallyintheformofcasestudies.Thesestudies,however,are
oftenpresentedwithoutreferencetothewiderempiricalandtheoreticalliteratureon
learningfrommedia,andarefrequentlyover-reliantonlearnerself-reportdata.Since
itseemslikelythatthefutureofsocialworkeducationwillincludefurther
Correspondenceto:NeilBallantyne,LearningTechnologyManager,InstituteforResearchInnovationinSocial
Services,GlasgowSchoolofSocialWork,UniversityofStrathclyde,76SouthbraeDrive,GlasgowG131PP,UK.Email:
614N.Ballantyne
experimentationwithmultimedia,itisimportantthatstudiesintotheeffectsof
mediawithinsocialworkeducationareexplicitlyconnectedwiththewiderlearning
technologyliterature,andbasedonrobustresearchmethodologies.
Thisarticleattemptstobuildabridgebetweensocialworkeducationalresearchon
multimediaapplicationsandsomeofthedebates,conceptsandtheorieswithinthe
widerlearningtechnologyliterature.Recentliteratureontheuseofmultimediain
socialworkeducationwillbereviewedbeforeintroducingthreeaspectsofthe
learningtechnologyliteraturerelevanttolearningwithmedia:themediaversus
methoddebate;theconceptofaffordances;andresearch-baseddesignprinciples
derivedfromacognitivetheoryoflearningwithmedia.
MultimediaUseinSocialWorkEducation
SeaburyMaple(1993)wereearlyadvocatesoftheuseofinteractivemultimediain
socialworkeducationandreportedontheuseofself-instructionalinteractive
videodisktechnologytoteachsocialworkpracticeskillsincludinginterviewing,crisis
intervention,andgroupwork.Evaluatingusers’perceptionsofthecrisisintervention
programme,SeaburyMaple(1993)foundthemajorityofrespondentswere
positivelydisposedtotheprogramme,feltthattheirknowledgehadincreased,and
believedtheywouldbebetterabletoapplycrisistheory.Astechnologyadvancedthe
programmemigratedtoCD-ROMandSeabury(2003)reportedthatboththecrisis
counsellingprogrammeandanotherprogrammeonassessingtheriskofsuicidewere
receivedpositivelybystudentsalthoughnodatawereoffered.Thecrisiscounselling
programmewasrecentlyreportedtobeinusewithsocialworkstudentsatFlorida
StateUniversitybutnodataonlearners’reactionsorlearninggainsareoffered
(SiebertSpaulding-Givens,2006).
CaubleThurston(2000)investigatedtheeffectsofadistanceeducation
interactivemultimediachildwelfarecourseontheknowledge,attitudesandself-
efficacyofsocialworkstudents.Drivingthedevelopmentofthiscoursewasa
concerntoprovideaccesstotrainingatadistanceforruralsocialworkers‘thus
savingontimeawayfromtheofficeaswellastheexpensesoftransportationand
lodging’(CaubleThurston,2000,p.429).Studentsreceivedpre-testsandpost-tests
ontheirconfidence,knowledgeandself-efficacyinrelationtothefiveunitsincluded
inthecourse.Significantincreaseswerefoundinbothconfidenceandknowledgeyet
thecomplexityofcontrollingvariablesineducationalresearchwasillustratedwhen
oneofthegroupsinvolvedinthestudywasfoundtohavemadesignificantgainsin
knowledgeandconfidenceonacontrolunittheyhadnotviewed.Therefore,as
CaubleThurston(2000)state,‘theentireincreaseinknowledgecannotbe
attributedtoviewingtheunits’(p.434).
Hansenetal.(2002)conductedastudyoftheeffectivenessofaninteractive
multimediaCD-ROMdesignedtoinstructsocialworkandhealthprofessionalsin
listeningskills.Thestudyfoundsignificantgainsintheunderstandingofconceptual
materialfornovicestudentsandself-reportedgainsinconfidenceintheuseoflistening skills. Studentsalsoexpressedpositiveviewsonthehelpfulnessoftheprogramme
SocialWorkEducation615
Ouelletteetal.(2006)reportonastudytoexploresimilaritiesanddifferences
betweentwogroupsofstudentsundertakingacourseoninterviewingskills:one
groupundertookthecoursewhollyonlineandtheotherexperiencedaconventional
face-to-facecourse.Thisstudywasnotsetuptocompareamultimediagroupwitha
non-multimediagroupsinceboththeonlineandface-to-facegroupsmadeuseof
video,althoughtheonlinegroupmademoreextensiveuseofvideotocompensate
forthelackofface-to-facecontact.Thestudyincludedaself-reportonstudents’
perceptionsofthelearningexperience;and,oncompletionofthecourse,thestudents
submitteda10-minutevideoofasimulatedinterviewforassessmentbyan
independentexpert.Therewerenostatisticallysignificantdifferencesbetweenthe
twogroupsintheirviewsoftheprogramme,theirself-reportedconfidencelevels,or
skillacquisitionasratedbytheindependentexpert.Whilstthefindingsaddtothe
growingnumberofcomparisonsbetweenonlineandface-to-facecoursesthatreport
nosignificantdifference(Russell,2001),thatthisshouldbethecaseinthecontextof
apracticalskills-basedcourseisremarkable.
Shibusawaet al.(2006)describedtheuseofvideorole-playstosupportlearningin
thecontextofaMasterslevelsocialworkcourseoncouples’therapy.Thevideofiles
werehostedinaweb-basedenvironmentthatsupportedonlinediscussionand
reflection.Addingasignificantnewfeature,thesystemalsoallowedstudentsto‘clip’
or‘excerpt’portionsofthevideotoattachtotheirmessagesaboutthevideorole-
plays,thusfocusingdiscussiononveryspecificportionsoftheaction.Thestudy
collectedself-reportdatafromastudentquestionnaireandfocusgroupsand
reportedpositiveviewsontheuseofthetechnologytosupportlearning.
BallantyneKnowles(2007)comparedthereactionsofsocialworkstudentsona
problem-basedlearningcourseusingamultimediacase,withthesamestudents’
viewsoflearningfromtext-basedcasestudies.Thestudywasconductedwiththree
groupsofstudents:twoenrolledinaCanadiansocialworkcourse,theotherona
socialworkcourseinScotland.Theself-reportresultsindicatedpositiveviewsonthe
useofthemultimediacasescenarioswithbothCanadianandScottishstudents
agreeingthattheirlearningwassignificantlyenhancedandthatthemultimediacase
offeredaricherandmoreauthenticcontextforlearning.
Multimediaisincreasinglyfindingitswayintotraditionalclassroompresentations
asanadjuncttolectures.ButlerYaffe(2006)comparedlearninggainedfroma
lecturedeliveredunderthreeconditions:alecturewithoutslidepresentations
(control);alectureusingslidescontainingtextonly;andalectureusingslides
containingtextanddecorative(i.e.unrelatedtothecontent)clip-artpictures.
Knowledgeretentionwasnotsignificantlydifferentbetweenthethreegroupsona
post-instructionquiztwodaysafterthelecture;butbothexperimentalgroupswere
foundtohavesignificantlylowermeanscoresonlecture-relatedquestionsfourweeks
afterthelecture.Inoneofthefewsocialworkstudiesofmultimediatoreporta
negativeimpact,ButlerYaffe(2006)concludedthatelectronicslidepresentations,
withandwithout clip art,reducestudentlearning.Incontrast,HalletFaria(2006)
comparedtheuseof‘advancedmultimedia’asanadjuncttoalecturetopresent information tosocialworkandspeechandlanguagetherapystudents.Theyfound
616N.Ballantyne
thatunderthemultimediaconditionstudentsrecalledmoreinformationand
expressedapreferenceformultimediabothimmediatelyafterthelectureandthree
weekslater.
Thisbriefreviewincludesarangeofeducationalapplicationsofmultimediain
socialworkeducationandthepositiveviewsofstudentsinmoststudies.Themain
contentionofthisarticleisthatourunderstandingofthefindingsreviewedabove
maybeenhanced,andthedesignoffuturesocialworkstudiesintomultimediaand
otherlearningtechnologiesimproved,ifsocialworkeducationdevelopersand
researcherscontextualisetheirworkinthewiderlearningtechnologyliterature.The
remainderofthisarticlewillnowfocusonthreeaspectsofthisliterature:themedia
versusmethoddebate;theconceptofaffordances;andresearch-baseddesign
principlesderivedfromacognitivetheoryoflearningwithmedia.
TheLearningTechnologyLiterature
MediaversusMethod
Many,thoughnotall,ofthesocialworkstudiesdescribedarewrittenasifthekey
independentvariableinthestudyisthemultimediacontent.Yetthismultimedia
contentoractivityisalwayssituatedinaparticularcurricularapproach,aparticular
instructionaldesign.Oneofthemostwell-knownandsignificantdebatesinthefield
oflearningtechnologyisthemediaversusmethodsdebatewithClark(1983,1992)
andKozma(1991,1994)asthemainprotagonists[seeClark(2001)foracollectionof
thekeypapers].TheopeningsalvowasfiredbyClark(1983)when,followingan
extensivereviewoftheliterature,heconcludedthat,‘Thebestcurrentevidenceisthat
mediaaremerevehiclesthatdeliverinstructionbutdonotinfluencestudent
achievementanymorethanthetruckthatdeliversourgroceriescauseschangesin
ournutrition’(p.445).
Clark’sargumentisfoundedonacritiqueofstudiesclaimingtoshowthelearning
benefitsofmoretechnologicallyadvancedmedia(e.g.computer-basedprogrammes)
overmoreconventionalmedia(e.g.face-to-faceinteraction,textbooksetc.).These
studies,assertsClark,confoundthemethodofinstructionwiththemediausedto
conveyinstructionandwheredifferencesinlearningexist,thesecanbeshownto
derivefromthebenefitsofoneinstructionalmethodoveranother(e.g.drilland
practice,guideddiscovery,providingfeedbacketc.).Clarkhighlights,forexample,
thefindingthatdifferencesbetweencomputer-basedandconventionalteaching
largelydisappearwhenthesameteacherisusedinbothtreatments.Otherdifferences,
heargues,canbeattributedtothepresenceofuncontrolledvariablesbetweenthetwo
treatmentsand/orthenoveltyoftheunconventionaltreatment(aneffectthattends
todisappearovertime).
Since,inClark’sview,anyalternativemediacanbeusedtodeliverthesame
instructionalmethodandmediainthemselvesprovidenolearningbenefits,properly
conductedstudiesshouldshownosignificantdifferencebetweenlearningsituations
usingdifferentmedia.Comparativestudiesofeducationalmedia,arguesClark,
SocialWorkEducation617
shouldfocusonfactorsthatmediacaninfluence,suchascosts,andconductcost–
benefitanalysestoevaluatecostsincurredbythedeliverymethodagainstbenefits
gainedby,forexample,providingaccessatadistance(Clark,2000).
Consideringthesocialworkcasestudiesreviewedabove:thefindingofno
significantdifferencebyOuelletteetal.(2006)isentirelyinkeepingwithClark’s
predictions;andhewouldhavesympathywithCaubleThurston’s(2000)concerns
tousetechnologytoofferwideraccesstochildwelfareworkers.However,missing
frombothofthesestudiesisanyreferencetocomparativecosts—anessentialpartof
theargumentfortheuseofpotentiallyexpensivenewmediaaccordingtoClark
(2000).
Clark’sthesishasnotgoneunchallengedandeverynowandagainthemediaversus
methoddebatere-emergeswithinthelearningtechnologyliterature(see,forexample,
Moreno, 2006).Kozma(1991,1994)contendedthatparticularmediadohaveattributes
thatcanbeharnessedtopromoteeffectivelearninginspecificlearningsituations.
AlthoughagreeingwithClarkthattheoverallinstructionalmethodiscritical,Kozma
(1991,1994)arguedthatmediaandmethodcannotbeseparatedneatly,andthat
understandinghowlearnersinteractwithmediainagivenlearningsituationremainsan
important researchtask.Agreeing with both sides of the debate, Ehrmann (1995) stated
that Clark’s argument is nonetheless more important in helping to steer educators and
researchersawayfromseeingthelatesttechnologyasanecessarygoodanddrawing
attentiontothevitalimportanceofgoodinstructionaldesign.
TheAffordancesofMultimediaTechnology
Whethertheycanbeconsideredtocauselearningornot,learningtechnologies—
frombooks,throughwhiteboardstovirtuallearningenvironments—bringdifferent
kindsofaffordancesintothelearningsituation.Butwhatdowemeanbyaffordances
inthecontextofeducationalmultimedia?
Althoughtheconceptofaffordancesiswidelyusedinthelearningtechnology
literature,asMcGrenereHo(2000)pointout,itisusedindifferentwaysin
differentcontexts.TheperceptualpsychologistJamesJ.Gibson(1977,1979)is
attributedwithintroducingtheideaofaffordancestorefertopropertiesofthe
physicalworldthataffordanorganismcertainactions:soalevelsurfaceaffords
walking;atreeaffordsclimbing.Theseaffordancesofthenaturalenvironmentare
alwaysrelationalandnotthesameforallorganisms:thesurfacetensionofpond
wateraffordswalkingforsomeinsectsbutnotforothercreatures.
DonaldNorman(1988,1999)appropriatedandpopularisedthenotionof
affordanceswithinthefieldofproductdesign,highlightingthewayinwhichwell-
designedproducts—fromdoors,throughteapotstovideorecorders—communicate
theirdesigned-forusetousers.Normanwasprimarilyinterestedinhowproduct
designerscouldharnesstheperceivedaffordancesofartefactssouserswouldbeableto
workouttheirphysicalaffordanceswithoutneedingtorefertowrittensignsor
manuals.Adoorhandle,forexample,maybedesignedtosuggestpulling,ortheflat plate onadoordesignedtosuggestpushing.Gaver(1991)arguedfortherelevanceof
618N.Ballantyne
Table1MediaForms,MethodsandtheLearningExperiencesSupported(Laurillard, 2002,p.90)
LearningexperienceMethod/technologiesMediaforms
Attending,apprehendingPrint,TV,video,DVDNarrative
Investigating,exploringLibrary,CD,DVD,WebresourcesInteractive
Discussing,debatingSeminar,onlineconferenceCommunicative
Experimenting,practisingLaboratory,fieldtrip,simulationAdaptive
Articulating,expressingEssay,product,animation,modelProductive
theconcept—especiallytheideaofperceivedaffordances—tothegraphicaldesignof
human–computerinterfacesthatsuggestthefunctionsofdigitalmedia.
Kirschneretal.(2004)distinguishedthetechnologicalaffordancesofartefactsand
media[asdescribedbyNorman(1988)andGaver(1991)]fromwhattheydescribeas
educational affordances.ForKirschner(2002)aneducationalaffordanceis‘…the
relationshipsbetweenthepropertiesofaneducationalinterventionandthe
characteristicsofthelearner…thatenableparticularkindsoflearningbyhim/her’
(p.19).Evenmorerelevanttoourpresentconcern,Laurillardetal.(2000)discussed
theaffordancesofmultimediaforlearninginaninvestigationof‘thedesignfeatures
that afford activitiesthatgeneratelearning’.Laurillard(2002)also arguedthat different
learningmediasupporttheeducationalprocessindifferentwaysandofferedatypology
offiveprincipalforms:narrativemedia;interactivemedia;communicativemedia;
adaptivemedia;andproductivemedia(seeTable1fordetails).
Typologieslikethesecanhelpeducationaldesignersconsidertheeducational
affordancesofmedia(digitalandnon-digital)whenplanningarangeoflearning
experiencestocreatetheconditionsforeffectivelearning.Theycanalsoprovide
usefulanalyticalcategoriesforeducationalresearchersinterestedinexploringthe
impactofmediaonlearning.Inthecontextofthesocialworkstudiesdescribed
aboveitispossibletoseehowthedeveloperswhodesignedthecoursedescribedby
Ouelletteetal.(2006)wereabletoharnesstheparticularaffordancesofdigitalmedia
tosupportthelearningexperiencefordistantstudentsbyprovidingaccessto
streamingmultimediafilesofinterviewskills(narrativemedia),andenablingthemto
createandsubmittheirownvideoforpeerandtutorassessment(productivemedia).
Similarly,inthestudybyShibusawaetal.(2006)wemightspeculatethatthenew
interactiveandcommunicativeaffordancesprovidedbyaweb-basedenvironment—
enablingstudentstoselect,annotateandemailvideoclips—mightsupportanewand
improvedapproachtolearningaboutinterviewskillsfrommedia,althoughthedata
providedbyShibusawaetal.(2006)arenotyetsufficienttosupportthisproposition.
MultimediaLearningPrinciples
Iftheconceptofaffordancescanhelpdevelopersandeducatorsidentifythe
particularattributesoflearningtechnologies—bothdigitalandnon-digital— required tosupportaspecificinstructionalapproach,Mayer(2005)andMoreno
SocialWorkEducation619
(2006)drawattentiontotheattributesoflearners.Theyhavearguedforlearning
technologydevelopmentthatrecognisesprinciplesforthecreationofmultimedia
contentgroundedinacognitivetheoryofmultimedialearning.Mayer’scognitive
theoryofmultimedialearning(MayerMoreno,2003;Mayer,2005)isbasedon
threeassumptionsaboutthewayhumansnormallyprocessinformation:thedual
channelassumption—thathumanspossessseparatechannelsforprocessingvisual
andauditoryinformation;thelimited capacityassumption—thathumanscanonly
processalimitedamountofinformationineachchannelatanyonetime;andthe
assumptionofactiveprocessing—thathumansareactivelyengagedinthelearning
processattendingtoincominginformation,organisingitintocoherentmental
representations,andintegratingthisnewinformationwithpriorknowledge.
Onthebasisofaseriesofreplicatedempiricalfindings,consistentwithacognitive
theoryofmultimedialearning,Mayer(2003)describedprinciplesfortheeffective
designofmultimedialearningmaterials.Moreno(2006)revisedandexpandedon
theseprinciplestoproduce10principlesformultimediadesignandtheir
correspondingtheoreticalrationales[thepracticalapplicationoftheseprinciplesto
thedesignofeducationalmultimediaisexploredindetailinClarkMayer(2008)].
Thefirstfiveprinciplesarebasedonreducingcognitiveoverloadandthelastfiveare
aboutenhancingessentialcognitiveprocessing(seeTable2).
Fromadesignanddevelopmentperspectivetheprincipleshelptoground
multimediadesigninhumanpsychologyratherthanthecapabilitiesofmediaalone.
Fromaresearchandevaluationperspectivetheydrawourattentiontotheideathat,
beforeweconsidertheimpactofmultimediaonlearning,wemustalsoattendto
whetherthemultimediahasbeendesignedwellorbadly.Theprinciples,andthe
underlyingcognitivetheoryoflearningwithmedia,maywellaccountforsomeofthe
findingsofthesocialworkstudiesdescribedabove.Forexample,thefindingby
ButlerYaffe(2006)thatdecorativeclipartonPowerPointslideshadanegative
impactonlearningisconsistentwiththeCoherencePrinciplethat‘Studentslearn
betterwhenextraneousmaterialisexcluded’(Moreno,2006,p.65).Thecontrasting
findingbyHallettFaria(2006)thatmultimediausedasanadjuncttoalecturehad
apositiveimpactonlearningmaybeanillustrationoftheMultimedia Principlethat,
whenrelevantgraphicsareused‘studentslearnbetterfromwordsandgraphicsthan
fromwordsalone’.Unfortunately,neitherstudyoffersenoughdetailofthemethod
ofdeliveryormultimediadesigntoallowustomakeclearjudgments.
Conclusions
Itseemslikelythat,justasinothersubjectareas,socialworkeducationwillcontinue
tointegratemultimediaandothernewtechnologiesintomainstreameducational
practiceandthatsocialworkeducatorswillcontinuetoevaluatetheseapplications.
Mayer(2003)arguesforarigorousapproachtoe-learningresearchanddevelopment
basedonthreeelements:(a)evidence:intheformofreplicatedfindingsfrom
rigorousresearch;(b)theory:thatleadstotestablepredictionsabouthowpeople
learnwithinelectronicenvironments;and(c)applications:theory-basedprinciplesto
620N.Ballantyne
Table2TenDesignPrinciplesDerivedfromaCognitiveTheoryofLearningwith
MediaandtheirCorrespondingTheoreticalRationales(Moreno,2006,p.65)
PrincipleanddescriptionTheoreticalrationale
Modality
StudentslearnbetterfromwordsSpokenwordsareprocessedintheauditorychannel,
andgraphicswhenwordsaretherebyleavingthevisualchanneltoonlyprocessthe
spokenratherthanprintedgraphicsandexpandingeffectiveworking-memory
capacity
Verbal redundancy
StudentslearnbetterfromgraphicsWhenwordsandgraphicsarebothpresentedvisually,the
andnarrationthanfromgraphicsvisualchannelcanbecomeoverloaded
andredundantnarrationandtext
Temporal contiguity
StudentslearnbetterwithConcurrentwordsandgraphicscanbeheldinworking
concurrentratherthansuccessivememoryatthesametimeandthuslearnersaremorelikely
correspondingwordsandgraphicstobuildmentalconnectionsbetweenthem
Spatial contiguity
StudentslearnbetterwhenNon-integratedsourcesofinformationforcelearnersto
multiplesourcesofvisualholdonesourceinworkingmemorywhileattendingto
informationareintegratedtheother;mentalconnectionsbetweenthemarelesslikely
ratherthanseparatedtooccur
Coherence
StudentslearnbetterwhenExtraneousmaterialcompeteswithrelevantmaterials
extraneousmaterialisexcludedforcognitiveresourcesanddisruptstheprocessof
ratherthanincludedinalessonorganisationbypriminglearnerstoorganisethematerial
aroundinappropriateschemas
Multimedia
StudentslearnbetterfromwordsWhenrelevantgraphicsareaddedtowords,learnersare
andgraphicsthanfromwordsinducedtoselectandconnectbothmaterials,which
alonecontributeadditivelytoconstructingamentalmodel
Personalisation
StudentslearnbetterwhenPersonalisedmessagesheightenstudents’attention,and
explanationsarepersonalisedlearningismorelikelytooccurasaresultofreferringthe
ratherthannon-personalisedinstructionalmaterialtohim/herself
Guidance
NovicestudentslearnbetterwhenNoviceslackproperautomatedschemastohelpthem
givenprinciple-basedexplanationsselectandorganisethematerials,thuslearningismore
thantheydowhenaskedtoinferlikelytooccurwhenexplanationsprovideaguiding
principlesbythemselvesschema
Interactivity
StudentslearnbetterbyInteractivityencouragestheprocessingofnew
manipulatingratherthanbyinformationbyengagingstudentsinanactivesearchfor
passivelyobservingothersmeaning
manipulatethematerials
Reflection
StudentslearnbetterwhengivenReflectionpromoteslearningbyencouragingmoreactive
opportunitiestoreflectduringtheorganisationandintegrationofnewinformationwith
meaning-makingprocesspriorknowledge
guidethedesignofelectroniclearningenvironmentsthatcanthenbeevaluatedin
use.Thestudiesofmultimediauseinsocialworkeducationfall—forthemostpart—
intothelastcategory.However,therobustnessofthesestudiesassubject-specific
applicationswouldbeimprovediftheyweremoreobviouslyconnectedwith
SocialWorkEducation621
concepts,frameworksandfindingsfromthewiderlearningtechnologyliterature;if
theinstructionalmethodstheyembodiedweremoreexplicitlydescribedandmore
directlyfoundedonprinciplesofeffectivemultimediadesign;andifevaluations
consistentlyincludedappropriatemeasuresoflearninggainsaswellaslearners’
reactions.
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