CHAPTER ONE
ORIGINS OF EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT
CHAPTER OUTLINE
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
THE EARLY THINKERS
The Roots of Modern Science
Linnaeus and the Natural Scheme of Life
THE ROAD TO THE DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
The Uniformitarianists: Hutton and Lyell
THE DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
The Galápagos
Refining the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
Insights and Advances:Darwin versus Wallace?
THE RESPONSE TO DARWIN
SCIENCE AND CREATIONISM
Insights and Advances: What is Intelligent Design?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Based on thorough reading and careful consideration of Chapter One, students should be able to:
1.Discuss the process of science, including observation, hypothesis formulation, and experimentation.
2.Explain how the scientific method is an empirical process and self-correcting.
3. Explain the roots of modern science and the concept of evolution; explain catastrophism versus uniformitarianism. Discuss the conflicting viewpoints of Bishop Usher, Georges Cuvier, Georges Buffon, James Hutton, and Charles Lyell.
4.Compare and contrast Jean Baptiste de Lamarck's view of evolution and heredity with those of Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace. Understand why Lamarck's views may have been more popular in his time.
5.Identify the contributions of Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace to evolutionary theory.
6.Describe the process and provide examples of natural selection including those from the Galapagos Islands.
7. Critique Louis Agassiz’s response to Darwin and Wallace’s theory of Natural Selection.
8. Debate the tenets of Creation science and how they differ from the process of modern science.
LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS
Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading orother forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about thetopics.
1.Lecture on evolution. Be sure to talk about both the special theory of Evolution (individual variation and microevolution) and the general theory of Evolution (macroevolution). You could comment on both the monophyletic and polyphyletic schools of thought in macroevolution.
You may be able to incorporate a discussion of some of the recent findings about cloning and what this contributes to our understanding of evolutionary processes. Students will likely be interested in the ethical issues involved in manipulating evolutionary processes.
You might also include a discussion of the scientific method in this chapter, including its procedures and limitations. It can only deal with questions that are potentially or actually repeatable. Its steps are: (1) observation; (2) question or problem; (3) hypothesis/null hypothesis; (4) gathering data/methodology; and (5) formation of a conclusion. Stress the equal importance of honest and effective methodology and conclusion formation. Describe the process of theory formation, a hypothesis supported by a large body of observations confirmed by many independent investigators.
As part of this lecture, describe how good theory formation (1) explains or shows relationships among facts; (2) simplifies; (3) clarifies; (4) grows to relate additional facts, which means it is always tentative in scope; (5) predicts new facts and relationships; and (6) does not explain too much. Theory becomes a scientific law if it possesses a high degree of certainty and is widely accepted within the scientific community. Stress to students that science is never finished; scientific fact is an accurate description of an object or event based on what we know and what we know how to do. It is not an absolute finality.
You may also take the opportunity to discuss patterns of deductive and inductive logic. Talk about proof and rigor of proof in science. Be sure to emphasize that when we extrapolate from proven scientific theory, it is only supposition, not scientific fact. An interesting book on the uses of science and pseudoscience within the context of archaeology is Kenneth L. Feder's Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries:Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology.
2.A lecture on problem solving would follow naturally from one on the scientific method. Present it as a methodology we can use when the scientific method is not appropriate. One problem-solving strategy is to: (1) identify the problem; (2) state the goal; (3) list the constraints and assumptions; (4) suggest possible solutions; (5) judge suggested solutions and decide which one to test; and (6) test and implement your best solution. Use this model to analyze some current local, state, or national problem.
3.Natural selection provides direction to evolutionary change, yet students often have trouble grasping the concept. Discuss examples of natural selection in detail and explore what "fitness" means in evolutionary terms.
4.Most anthropologists use the terms scientific creationism and creationism interchangeably. However, in the Religious Studies discipline those two terms mean different things. Creation science can refer to the school of thought known as theistic evolutionism. Scientists in this school believe in both God and evolution. God is accepted as the ultimate origin of all life, and evolution is seen as the "footprints" of the creative process. Theistic evolutionists would say that God provides the "why" and evolution the "how" of life. The author provides a thorough explanation of the shortcomings of creation science. The American Scientific Affiliation has material on this topic. Some books that show a variety of viewpoints are listed in the resources for this chapter. The debate is not between scientific facts and the Bible, but between certain biblical interpretations and certain scientific extrapolations.
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1.Have students share their cosmologies and origin myths. Talk about similarities and differences in the ones expressed. As always with such discussions, it is necessary to establish a neutral atmosphere, with acceptance and patience for hearing others' ideas.
2.Invite a biologist into class to lecture about a biological understanding of evolution. Check your library or rental catalogs for films on evolution and natural selection, DNA, molecular genetics, population genetics, and punctuated equilibrium versus the gradualistic theory of speciation. Such films can often provide visual explanations that are clearer and more complete than simple lecture or text information.
3.Arrange students into groups of four or five and have them use the problem-solving method (outlined in Lecture and Discussion topic #2) to analyze a problem or issue facing their community. Then have the groups come together and share their results.
4.Have your students read the 1858 paper titled “ON THE TENDENCY OF VARIETIES TO DEPART INDEFINITELY FROM THE ORIGINAL TYPE, by Alfred Wallace.” You may find this paper at the following website: Students should then compare Wallace’s conclusions to those of Darwin and Natural Selection. Have them report their findings.
5.Discuss the students' various religious and nonreligious beliefs about the origins of life. Emphasize again the importance for tolerance in listening to other students' points of view. Further discuss the concept of Intelligent Design and how it is an intellectual, if not scientific approach to evolutionary change.
RESEARCHAND WRITING TOPICS
Encourage your students to utilize the free tool OneSearch with Research Navigator™, included with this textbook as a supplement. They will have to register to use this service. Once registered, students can use this tool to research the Internet to find valid sources for research papers, saving them much time in their efforts to identify relevant sources.
1.Have students research an origin myth that is not their own using library sources and/or interviewing. Have them compare and contrast this myth with their own and explain how they reconcile competing claimsof truth. It may be presented in written or oral form.
2.Have students complete written or oral biographical reports on one of the following men and how their scientific ideas contributed to Western thought: Georges Cuvier, Georges Buffon, James Hutton, Charles Lyell, Charles Darwin, Jean Baptiste de Lamarck, Gregor Mendel, or Alfred Wallace.
3.Assign each student to devise an experiment using the scientific method. The experiment should be left to the student to decide. Ask them to go into some detail at each stage of the scientific method.
4.Divide the class into two parts and have half of the students research punctuated equilibrium while the other half researches gradualistic theories of speciation. Have each group present its theoretical model and then debate the issue with the other group.
5.Have your students research scientific creation science, evolutionism, theistic evolutionism, and creationism. In written or oral reports, or in a debate, have students defend a position they do not hold. Monitor, in a brief essay or opinion poll, how the students' opinions may have changed based on what they have learned in the chapter.
6.Invite a geographer or geologist to guest lecture about plate tectonics and continental drift. Use one of the films listed under Resources below to illustrate these points.
7.Invite proponents of biological evolutionism, scientific creationism, and theistic evolutionism/creationism into your class. After each gives a short presentation of his or her views, they could engage in a debate in which students could participate. Discuss the Scopes trial and the controversy that marks the publication of biology textbooks in certain states.
PRINT RESOURCES
BROOKS, J.L. 1999. Just Before the Origin: Alfred Wallace’s Theory of Evolution. iUniverse.
BROWNE, JANET. 1996. Charles Darwin: Voyaging. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
2002. Charles Darwin: The Power of Place. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
DARWIN, C.R. [1859] 1975. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection; or, ThePreservation of the Favored Races in the Struggle for Life. New York: CambridgeUniversity Press.
FUTUYMA, DOUGLAS J. 1995. Science on Trial: The Case for Evolution. Sinauer Associates, Reprint Edition.
GOULD, STEPHEN JAY. 1997. Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin. Three Rivers Press; Reprint Edition.
1990. Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History. New York: Norton.
1996. The Mismeasure ofMan.New York: Norton.
SHERMER, M. 2006. Why Darwin Matters. Henry Holt and Co., New York.
SPROUL, BARBARA. 1979. Primal Myths: Creating the World. New York: Harper & Row.
WEINER, J. 1995. The Beak of the Finch. New York: Vintage Books; Reprint Edition.
FILMS, VIDEOS, AND OTHER NONPRINT RESOURCES
Films from Penn State Audio-Visual Services, (Phone: 800/826-0132) unless otherwise noted:
Continental Drift: The Theory of Plate Tectonics (21 minutes)
Drifting of the Continents (51minutes)
The Living Machine (60 minutes) University of Minnesota
The Living Planet: A Portrait of the Earth: 1--Building of the Earth Parts 1 and 2 (57 minutes)
The Not-So-Solid Earth (30 minutes)
Quest for Fire, feature film.
Charles Darwin (24 minutes) University of Minnesota, 800/847-8251
Darwin's Finches (11 minutes)
The Day the Universe Changed: 8--Darwin's Revolution (53 minutes)
Evolution and the Origin of Life (36 minutes)
Evolution: Origins of Change, 1-Heredity and Mutation (21 minutes)
The Evidence of Evolution (30 minutes) 1987. Films for the Humanities and Sciences.
RESEARCH NAVIGATOR™ EXERCISES
- Please review the following website dedicated to the Galapagos Islands of Ecuador: What features of this island chain made it the “perfect” biological study area for Charles Darwin? What if Darwin had not “run across” this island chain? Would Alfred Wallace now be known as the author of Natural Selection?
- Plate tectonics and the concept of continental drift have explained much geological phenomenon. Look at the map of the plates on the following website: How can an understanding of the movement of the various plates lead to an understanding of geological processes affecting biological evolution?
- Look at the website on embryonic development at the following website: What is the meaning of the phrase "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny?” Why is this statement an oversimplification of the process of embryonic development? How does the presentation of this website refute ‘creationism?”
TEST QUESTIONS
Chapter 1 Origins of Evolutionary Thought
1. What was the result of the Scopes Monkey Trial?
a. Scopes was found guilty of teaching evolution and lost his job
b. the state of Tennessee was forced to allow the teaching of evolution
c. evolution was disproved
d. Scopes was found innocent
(Answer a; page 15)
2. Today, federal courts uphold the idea that ______.
a. evolution should not be taught in public schools
b. the Old Testament is the most accurate source of information about the Earth’s past
c. evolution is the unifying principle of the life sciences
d. none of these
(Answer c; page 15)
3. Science is a(n) ______, not a ______.
a. result/ process
b. process/ method
c. process/ result
d. observation/ hypothesis
(Answer c; page 16)
4. Science is a perfect process because data are always interpreted the same way.
a. True
b. False
(Answer b; page 16)
5. Which of the following is an element of the scientific method?
a. experimentation
b. observation
c. hypothesis
d. all of these
(Answer d; page 15)
6. In science, a preliminary explanation is known as a(n) ______.
a. experiment
b. hypothesis
c. datum
d. paradigm
(Answer b; page 16)
7. Scientific hypotheses are ______.
a. derived from a non-empirical process
b. rarely tested
c. always assumed to be true
d. falsifiable
(Answer d; page 17)
8. To say that a hypothesis is falsifiable is to say that it is ______.
a. testable
b. false
c. proven
d. simple
(Answer a; page 17)
9. Which of the following best characterizes Aristotle’s view of nature?
a. natural forms may change as they adapt to environmental conditions
b. each living form possesses a fixed essence that cannot be altered
c. life forms change in constant yet unpredictable ways
d. animals transform over time, but plants do not
(Answer b; page 17)
10. Aristotle believed in the “immutability of species.” This means he felt that species ______.
a. are always changing
b. change only when it is adantageous
c. are fixed
d. change sporadically and unpredictably
(Answer c; page 17)
11. Early natural philosophers like Aristotle and Plato considered themselves the first real scientists.
a. True
b. False
(Answer b; page 17)
12. Which of the following is inconsistent with Aristotle’s ideas about nature?
a. life-forms are always changing
b. humans are at the top of a “Great Chain of Being”
c. all life is arranged in an orderly and hierarchical fashion
d. all of these
(Answer a; page 17)
13. During the Middle Ages, the idea of fixity of species was finally abandoned.
a. True
b. False
(Answer b; page 17)
14. The dominant paradigm during the European Middle Ages was based on ______.
a. science
b. falsifiability
c. theology
d. empirical experimentation
(Answer c; page 17)
15. The foundation was laid for the establishment of an academic discipline devoted to a scientific understanding of the human condition during the ______.
a. Middle Ages
b. late nineteenth century
c. Renaissance
d. early twentieth century
(Answer c; page 17)
16. Through their “rediscovery” of ancient Greek and Roman thinkers, Renaissance scholars developed a strong sense of ______.
a. time and cultural variation
b. the fixity of species
c. human’s superiority in nature
d. monogenism
(Answer a; page 17)
17. ______was probably the first true scientist in the modern sense,
a. Darwin
b. Galen
c. Aristotle
d. Da Vinci
(Answer d; page 18)
18. The main contribution of Renaissance scientists/artists Leonardo da Vinci and Andreas Vesalius was their ______.
a. study of the stars and planets
b. discovery of the New World
c. idea of polygenism
d. anatomical drawings
(Answer d; pages 17, 18)
19. The discovery of the New World provided Renaissance scholars their first look at ______.
a. many exotic plant species
b. a greater range of human biological variation
c. a greater range of human cultural variation
d. all of these
(Answer d; page 18)
20. In 1537, Pope Paul III declared the New World Natives as “nonhuman.”
a. True
b. False
(Answer b; page 18)
21. Sixteenth century scholars who argued for polygenism were ______.
a. rewarded by the Church
b. ignored
c. imprisoned or burned
d. celebrated
(Answer c; page 18)
22. The idea that there is a single, divine origin of humanity is called ______.
a. monogenism
b. polygenism
c. evolution
d. fixity of species
(Answer a; page 18)
23. Which is more aligned with the view of nature common to the Middle Ages?
a. polygenism
b. monogenism
(Answer b; page 18)
24. Archbishop James Ussher calculated the age of the Earth using ______.
a. geologic evidence
b. astronomical data
c. the Bible
d. ancient Greek and Roma texts
(Answer c; page 18)
25. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, classification took precedence over questions of origins.
a. True
b. False
(Answer a; page 18)
26. Scientists in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were mostly interested in .
a. evolution
b. polygenism
c. classification
d. chemistry
(Answer c; page 18)
27. In The Starry Messenger, Galileo ______.
a. proved Church doctrine
b. supported the theory of evolution
c. supported the idea that the earth is at the center of the universe
d. proved Copernicus’ sun-centered theory of a century earlier
(Answer d; pages 18, 19)
28. Despite evidence from Galileo, Newton, and Kepler, the Church has never changed its position on the Earth’s position at the center of the universe.
a. True
b. False
(Answer b; page 19)
29. The first naturalist to employ the terms genus and species was ______.
a. John Ray
b. Carolus Linnaeus
c. Charles Darwin
d. Edward Tyson
(Answer a; page 19)
30. ______is the science of classifying and naming living things.
a. Monogenesis
b. Evolution
c. Taxonomy
d. Natural selection
(Answer c; page 19)
31. Who is most associated with the taxonomy used by scientists today?
a. Carolus Linnaeus
b. Georges Cuvier
c. Comte de Buffon
d. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire
(Answer a; page 19)
32. A taxonomy is made up of discrete units called ______.
a. species
b. nomenclatures
c. particles
d. taxons
(Answer d; page 19)