Online Resource 1. Overview of ecosystem-based fisheries management (EBFM) efforts and restoration programs and projects related to EBFM in the United States (U.S.) Gulf of Mexico (GOM)

EBFM efforts in the U.S. GOM include: (1) the implementation of marine protected areas (MPAs); (2) measures to reduce bycatch; (3) culling programs; and (4) the integration of ecosystem considerations into single-species stock assessments (Table OR1.1). Althoughevidence suggests that GOM MPAs do not reduce fishing effort, they can help solve allocation conflicts and protect vulnerable habitat and life stages (Coleman et al. 2004). Regarding bycatch management, NOAA Fisheries works with regional management agencies to monitor and address bycatch concerns through regulations, such as gear requirements,which aim to reduce catch and mortality of non-target species (Anonymous 2001; Karp et al. 2011). Lionfish (Pterois volitans and P. miles) are the focus of culling programs in the GOM (McCreedy et al. 2012). At present, outreach to divers, sponsored derbies (e.g., Johnston et al. 2015) and a single culling program in the GOM for lionfish are intended toimprove habitat and increase abundance and diversity of native species (McCreedy et al. 2012). The “Eat Lionfish Campaign” encourages the consumption of lionfish as a delicious and environmentally friendly seafood option. Although managers are optimistic that these efforts will make a difference, a complete eradication of lionfish is unlikely(McCreedy et al. 2012; REEF 2012; Johnston et al. 2015), partly due to their broad depth distribution which extends beyond diving limits. Finally, several stock assessments within the GOM have met EBFM mandates for consideration of ecosystem processes within modeled dynamics (National Marine Fisheries Service 2016) (Table OR1.1).

Several agencies and groups have developed restoration programs to address stressors affecting the GOM, all aiming to restore the habitats that have been degraded (Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force 2011; Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority of Louisiana 2012; Rose and Sable 2013; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2013; Natural Resources Conservation Service 2014; Anonymous 2015; Hypoxia Task Force 2015). In general, restoration programs of the GOM are intended for application to the U.S. GOM and have very broad goals. An exception to this general pattern is the specific plan put forth by the state of Louisiana for addressing land loss (Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority of Louisiana 2012). Details about restoration programs of the U.S. GOM and GOM LME are provided below and in Table OR1.2.

After the Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil spill, an executive order was issued to establish the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)’s Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force (GCERTF), so as to “address the persistent and significant decline of the Gulf ecosystem” (Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force 2011). The GCERTF developed a framework focused on using sound science and public and stakeholder involvement to restore environments, marine resources and community resilience (Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force 2011). Rather than addressing particular stressors such as oil impacts and oil dispersal, this task force focuses on overall ecosystem and community health. The GCERTF identified restoration priorities for the GOM (Table OR1.2) and created an appropriate set of corresponding action plans (Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force 2011; Walker et al. 2012). The task force also developed a framework for decision-making, resolving uncertainties, and assessing the short and long-term effectiveness of restoration efforts in the GOM (Walker et al. 2012).

The primary goal of the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative (GoMRI) is to understand the dispersal and effects of oil and oil dispersants, as well as the impacts of the DWH oil spill, so that we can better respond to future oil spills in the GOM (Anonymous 2015). GoMRI has selected fifteen research consortia focusing on the physical dispersion, chemical evolution, environmental effects, and public health effects of oil, as well as technology developments for improved response to oil spills (Anonymous 2015).

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)’s GOM Integrated Ecosystem Assessment (IEA) program is an “interdisciplinary, interagency effort whose goal is to address all the various ecosystem services in one unified management framework” (Schirripa et al. 2013). The GOM IEA program aims to develop a toolbox, including a suite of ecosystem models and management strategy evaluation (MSE) tools, to allow resource managers to evaluate the potential impacts of EBFM efforts and restoration activities and assess potential tradeoffs between conflicting management goals (Levin et al. 2009; Levin et al. 2014; Samhouri et al. 2014).

The RESTORE Act directed NOAA to establish the NOAA RESTORE Act Science Program as a means to expend restoration funds (NOAA 2015). NOAA RESTORE Act Science Program is tasked with identifying and funding projects that address EBFM and restoration information needs and support healthy, diverse, sustainable, and resilient habitats and resources, as well as resilient coastal communities (NOAA 2015). NOAA RESTORE Act Science Program’s short-term investments are strategic and focus on the identification and assessment of the GOM ecosystem science and health (NOAA 2015).

Other restoration programs and projects in the GOM focus on improving the state of coastal habitats to restore ecosystem function (Tables OR1.2 and OR1.3). In the process, they address many of the stressors described in Online Resource 2. These restoration programs, in general, focus on pressures and states, essentially treating symptoms rather than addressing the causes (McLean et al. 2002; Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force 2011; Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority of Louisiana 2012; Walker et al. 2012; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2013; National Research Council 2014; Natural Resources Conservation Service 2014; Anonymous 2015; NOAA 2015). One exception to this general pattern relates to the nutrient loading driver. Action plans were put forth in 2001 and 2008 by the Hypoxia Task Force, with the ultimate goal to reduce the area of the hypoxic zone to a five-year running average of less than 5,000 km² by 2015 through the decrease of nutrient loadings (Hypoxia Task Force 2015). In February of 2015, the Hypoxia Task Force (2015) announced that the time frame would be extended to 2035 with an interim target of a 20% reduction of nitrogen and phosphorus loadings by 2025.

Several projects in the GOM involve freshwater and sediment diversion, including diversion that alters natural water flows and diversion to restore natural hydrologic patterns (Yanez-Arancibia and Day 2004; Day et al. 2007; Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority of Louisiana 2012; Walker et al. 2012). Freshwater diversion is a key issue in Louisiana; freshwater diversion projects in Louisiana focus on building and sustaining existing land, and reducing future risks to infrastructures and humans while maintaining ecosystem services (Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority of Louisiana 2012). Hydrological restoration projects involve installing features that prevent saltwater intrusion into naturally fresh bodies of water, and reconnecting freshwater to areas previously cut off by other man-made features. Sediment diversion and channel realignment projects aim to divert river water and sediment from the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers into adjacent basins to prevent flooding, rebuild land, and act as physical barriers against storm surge (Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority of Louisiana 2012).

The creation of artificial reefs is an important restoration undertaking in the entire U.S. GOM. Artificial reefs have been recommended to restore coastal reefs, provide additional habitat and settlement surfaces, and increase physical protection against storms as they can dampen wave energy, decrease erosion, and stabilize sediments (Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force 2011). Artificial reefs can support a diversity of marine organisms where they are located as well as in adjacent areas, thereby benefiting the fishing industry and making coastal communities more resilient. Artificial reef development programs are implemented in all GOM states, including the decommissioning of oil platforms (Sheehy and Vik 2010).

Finally, lessons can be learned from the successful restoration of the Tampa Bay seagrass habitat. Untreated sewage, dredging and coastal development, nutrient loading, and population growth contributed to the degradation and die off of seagrasses in Tampa Bay (Lewis et al. 1998; Russell and Greening 2015). To address this issue, restoration efforts were initiated, which consisted of controls on eutrophication and dredging, including the installation of wastewater treatment systems (Greening et al. 2014), the implementation of state-legislated water treatment standards, and the cessation of dredging in 1975. In 1998, the Nitrogen Management Council developed the Nitrogen Management Action Plan to mitigate the effects of nitrogen loading (Greening et al. 2011). Projects dealing with point sources of pollution and nutrients have been implemented and maintained. The restoration of the Tampa Bay seagrass habitathas resulted in a decrease in nutrient loading and an increase in water clarity. Monitoring shows that the trend in seagrass loss has been reversed (Johansson and Greening 2000), yet, not at the same rate in all locations (Greening et al. 2011). If current trends continue, restoration goals will be met in 2050. Remaining threats to continued success include non-point pollution sources, population growth, and sea-level rise (Greening et al. 2011). The restoration of the Tampa Bay seagrass habitatis beneficial to EBFM, since seagrasses are part of the foundation of the Tampa Bay watershed and affect the entire Tampa Bay ecosystem, particularly because they provide habitat for ecologically and economically important fish and shellfish species.

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Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force (2011) Gulf of Mexico Regional Ecosystem Restoration Strategy. Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force. ftp://140.90.235.78/pub/data.nodc/coris/library/NOAA/CRCP/other/non_crcp_publications/EPA_GulfCoastReport_Full_Dec2011.pdf. Accessed 15 Nov 2016

Hart RA (2012) Stock assessment of white shrimp (Litopenaeus setiferus) in the US Gulf of Mexico for 2011. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-SEFSC-637, Galveston

Hypoxia Task Force (2015) Mississippi River/Gulf of Mexico Watershed Nutrient Task Force 2015 Report to Congress. Environmental Protection Agency. Accessed 15 Nov 2016

International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) (2013) Report of the 2013 Atlantic Swordfish Stock Assessment Session. ICCAT Document Number SCI-036 / 2013. Accessed 15 Nov 2016

Johansson JOR, Greening HS (2000) Seagrass restoration in Tampa Bay: a resource-based approach to estuarine management. CRC Press-Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton

Johnston M, Gittings S, Morris JJ (2015) NOAA National Marine Sanctuaries Lionfish Response Plan (2015-2018): responding, controlling, and adapting to an active marine invasion. Marine Sanctuaries Conservation Series ONMS-15-01. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Silver Spring. Accessed 15 Nov 2016

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Lewis RR, Clark PA, Fehring WK, Greening HS, Johansson RO, Paul RT (1998) The rehabilitation of the Tampa Bay Estuary, Florida, USA, as an example of successful integrated coastal management. Mar Pollut Bull 37:468–473. doi: 10.1016/S0025-326X(99)00139-3

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National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (2015) NOAA RESTORE Act Science Program-Science Plan.National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Accessed 15 Nov 2016

Parsons GR, Foster DG (2015) Reducing bycatch in the United States Gulf of Mexico shrimp trawl fishery with an emphasis on red snapper bycatch reduction. Fish Res167:210–4215. doi:10.1016/j.fishres.2015.02.009

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Tables

Table OR1.1. Summary of ecosystem-based fisheries management efforts (EBFM) in the United States (U.S.) Gulf of Mexico (GOM)

EBFM efforts / Examples
Marine protected areas (MPAs) /
  • Solve allocation issues by spatially or temporally separating conflicting fisheries (e.g., stone crab (Menippe mercenaria and M. adina) and shrimpfisheries) (Coleman et al. 2004)

  • Increase fisheries yields by protecting under-sized individuals (e.g., shrimp fisheries) (Coleman et al. 2004)

  • Reduce fishing effort with seasonal or area closures of spawning aggregations (e.g., groupers) (Coleman et al. 2004)

  • Protect ecological structure and function through the closure of essential fish habitat to fishing activities (Coleman et al. 2004)

Bycatch reduction /
  • Bycatch reduction devices (BRDs) in the shrimp trawl fishery

  • Switch from J hooks to circle hooks in the longline fishery (Richards et al. 2012; Parsons and Foster 2015)

  • Turtle excluder devices (TEDs) in the shrimp trawl fishery (Raborn et al. 2012)

  • Fish excluder devices and the hose and cage devicein the menhaden (Brevoortia spp.) purse seine fishery(Rester and Condrey 1999)

Culling /
  • Targeted removals of lionfish (Pterois volitans and P. miles) through small-scale fishing derbies and lobster traps (McCreedy et al. 2012)

Stock assessments integrating ecosystem considerations /
  • Inclusion of red tide mortality for GOM gag grouper (Mycteroperca microlepis) and red grouper (Epinephelus morio)(SEDAR 2014; Sagarese et al. 2015; SEDAR 2015)

  • Consideration of an index of recruitment anomalies due to oceanographic conditions for GOM gag grouper, red grouper, and red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) (SEDAR 2014; Sagarese et al. 2015; SEDAR 2015)

  • Consideration of an environmental linkage between catchability and the Atlantic warm pool for North Atlantic swordfish (Xiphias gladius) (ICCAT 2013)

  • Inclusion of a seasonal linkage on catchability to allow for higher selectivity during the spring fishing season for white shrimp (Litopenaeus setiferus)(Hart 2012)

  • Inclusion of mortality due to red tide and cold snaps for common snook (Centropomus undecimalis) (Muller and Taylor 2013)

  • Inclusion of mortality due to precipitation and stream flow for blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) (GDAR 2013)

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