Part 2: Biology

  1. Function of Organelles
  2. Nucleus: contains all DNA in animal cell
  3. Nuclear envelope or membrane: double phospholipid bilayer that surrounds nucleus and has pores for RNA to move out.
  4. Nucleolus: where rRNA is transcribed and the subunits of ribosomes are assembled
  5. Rough endoplasmic reticulum: flattened sacs with many ribosomes and synthesizes proteins
  6. Golgi complex:modifies and packages proteins for use in other parts of the cell
  7. Lysosomes: contain hydrolytic enzymes that digest substances
  8. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum:tubular, lipid synthesis and detoxification of drugs
  9. Peroxisomes: vesicles in cytosol involved in production and breakdown of hydrogen peroxide
  10. Ribosome: make proteins
  11. Chromosomes: part of nucleus and distinct during replication
  12. Cellular Filaments
  13. Cytoskeleton: a network of filaments that determine the structure and motility of the cell
  14. Microtubules:
  15. larger than microfilaments
  16. rigid hollow tubes made from tubulin
  17. involved in flagella and cilia construction and spindle apparatus
  18. Microfilaments:
  19. squeeze membrane together in phagocytosis and cytokinesis
  20. the contractile force in microvilli and muscle.
  21. Flagella: tail of sperm so it can move
  22. Cilia: are found only in fallopian tubes and respiratory tract of humans
  23. Centrosome: involved in cell division. Microtubules grow from it.
  24. Centrioles: function in production of flagella and cilia, but not for microtubule production
  25. Cell Life Cycle
  26. G1: usually the longest stage. Cell splits and grows.
  27. S: energy used for replicating DNA
  28. G2: cell prepares to divide
  29. M: Meiosis or Mitosis
  30. C: Cytokinesis- separation of the cellular cytoplasm due to constriction of microfilaments about the center of the cell
  31. Mitosis: nuclear division with genetic change
  32. Prophase: condensation of chromatin into chromosomes
  33. Centrioles move to opposite ends of cell
  34. Nucleolus and nucleus disappear
  35. Spindle apparatus forms
  36. Metaphase: chromosome align at equator
  37. Anaphase: sister chromatids split and move toward opposite ends of cell
  38. Telophase: nuclear membrane reforms the nucleolus
  39. Result: 2 identical daughter cells
  40. Meiosis: double nuclear division which produces 4 haploid gametes
  41. In humans: only spermatogonium and oogonium undergo meiosis
  42. Prophase I: homologous chromosomes line up alongside each other, matching their genes exactly. May exchange sequences of DNA (crossing over).
  43. Metaphase I: homologs move to metaphase plate, do not separate
  44. Anaphase I: homologs separate
  45. Telophase I: Nuclear membrane may or may not form. If cytokinesis occurs the cells are haploid with 23 chromosomes
  46. Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II and Telophase II look the same as Mitosis.
  47. Protein Synthesis
  48. DNA –transcription- mRNA –translation- Protein
  49. tRNA: transfers specific amino acids to growing polypeptide chain during translation
  50. mRNA: conveys genetic information from DNA to the ribosome and is encoded in a sequence of nucleotides
  51. nRNA: ribonucleic acid found in the nucleolus of the cell
  52. nucleic acid: basic building block of DNA or RNA
  53. Glycolysis: Anaerobic catabolism of glucose (6C) to pyruvic acid (3C x 2) which occurs in cytoplasm
  54. Fermentation: glycolysis and reduction of pyruvate producing ethanol or lactic acid and NAD+
  55. Anaerobic Respiration: absence of O2 result in 2ATP/mol of glucose
  56. Aerobic Respiration: presence of O2 results in net 36ATP/mol of glucose
  57. Enzyme function: act as a catalyst
  58. They are globular proteins
  59. Lower energy of activation and increase rate of reaction
  60. Are not consumed or altered by reaction
  61. Do not alter the equilibrium
  62. Enzyme inhibition:
  63. Competitive inhibitors: compete with substrate by binding to active site
  64. Noncompetitive inhibitors: bind to enzyme in area other than active site
  65. Allosteric inhibitor: bind to enzyme and change configuration of enzyme
  1. Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic Cell / Prokaryotic Cell
Nucleus: / Present / Absent
Number of chromosomes: / More than one / One--but not true chromosome: Plasmids
Cell Type: / Usually multicellular / Usually unicellular (some cyanobacteria may be multicellular)
True Membrane bound Nucleus: / Present / Absent
Example: / Animals and Plants / Bacteria and Archaea
Genetic Recombination: / Meiosis and fusion of gametes / Partial, undirectional transfers DNA
Lysosomes and peroxisomes: / Present / Absent
Microtubules: / Present / Absent or rare
Endoplasmic reticulum: / Present / Absent
Mitochondria: / Present / Absent
Cytoskeleton: / Present / May be absent
DNA wrapping on proteins.: / Eukaryotes wrap their DNA around proteins called histones. / Multiple proteins act together to fold and condense prokaryotic DNA. Folded DNA is then organized into a variety of conformations that are supercoiled and wound around tetramers of the HU protein.
Ribosomes: / larger / smaller
Vesicles: / Present / Present
Golgi apparatus: / Present / Absent
Chloroplasts: / Present (in plants) / Absent; chlorophyll scattered in the cytoplasm
Flagella: / Microscopic in size; membrane bound; usually arranged as nine doublets surrounding two singlets / Submicroscopic in size, composed of only one fiber
Permeability of Nuclear Membrane: / Selective / not present
Plasma membrane with steroid: / Yes / Usually no
Cell wall: / Only in plant cells and fungi (chemically simpler) / Usually chemically complexed
Vacuoles: / Present / Present
Cell size: / 10-100um / 1-10um
  1. Animal vs Plant Cells

Animal Cell / Plant Cell
Cell wall: / Absent / Present (formed of cellulose)
Shape: / Round (irregular shape) / Rectangular (fixed shape)
Vacuole: / One or more small vacuoles (much smaller than plant cells). / One, large central vacuole taking up 90% of cell volume.
Centrioles: / Present in all animal cells / Only present in lower plant forms.
Chloroplast: / Animal cells don't have chloroplasts / Plant cells have chloroplasts because they make their own food
Cytoplasm: / Present / Present
Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth and Rough): / Present / Present
Ribosomes: / Present / Present
Mitochondria: / Present / Present
Plastids: / Absent / Present
Golgi Apparatus: / Present / Present
Plasma Membrane: / only cell membrane / cell wall and a cell membrane
Microtubules/ Microfilaments: / Present / Present
Flagella: / May be found in some cells / May be found in some cells
Lysosomes: / Lysosomes occur in cytoplasm. / Lysosomes usually not evident.
Nucleus: / Present / Present
Cilia: / Present / It is very rare
  1. Chemicals responsible for transmission in neurons:
  2. Adrenaline/Epinephrine: hormone and neurotransmitter that functions to regulate heart rate, breathing, and fight or flight response of sympathetic nervous system
  3. Choline: water soluble essential nutrient
  4. Noradrenaline/Norepinephrine: neurotransmitter released from the sympathetic neurons to affect the heart.
  5. Acetylcholine: Neurotransmitter in autonomic nervous system that acts on peripheral nervous system and central nervous system. Only neurotransmitter used in the motor division of somatic nervous system.
  6. Plant Hormones
  7. Plants need auxin, cytokinin and ethylene for growth of lateral buds.
  8. Auxin: plant hormones that has role in coordination of growth and behavioral processes in plants life cycle.
  9. Cytokinin: plant growth substance that promotes cell division in plant roots and shoot. Invovled in cell growth and differentiation.
  10. Gibberellin: plant hormones regulate growth and development processes including stem elongation, germination, dormancy, flowering sex expression, enzyme induction etc.
  11. Ethylene: Important natural plant hormone, used to ripen fruits.
  12. Na+ and K+ Channels
  13. Outside the cell Na+ is high because 3 Na+ move out while 2 K+ moves into the cell.
  14. Blood clotting stages
  15. Platelets rupture
  16. Prothrombrin –thromboplastin/Ca++ thrombin
  17. Fibrinogen –thrombin fibrin
  18. Fibrin and erythrocytes form a hardened clot
  19. Definitions
  20. Hemolysis: rupturing of erythrocytes and the release of their content into surrounding fluid
  21. Plasmolysis: process in plant cells where cytoplasm pulls away from cell wall due to loss of water through osmosis
  22. Fatty acid breakdown
  23. Beta-oxidation: when fatty acid molecules are broken down in mitochondria to generate actyl-coA.
  24. Transamination: chemical reaction between two molecules (amino acid containing amine (NH2) and a keto acid (=O). Amino acid becomes keto acid and keto acid becomes amino acid.
  25. Pentose phosphate pathway: process that generates NADPH and pentoses. This is an alternative to glycolysis. Primary role is anabolic and takes place in cytosol or in plastids of plants.
  26. Veins vs. Arteries
  27. Veins: bring deoxygenated blood toward the heart
  28. Arteries: bring oxygenated blood away from the heart
  29. Pulmonary Vein: carries blood with highest concentration of oxygen
  30. Renal Vein: veins that drain the kidney. Connect the kidney to the inferior vena cava.
  31. Pulmonary artery: carries deoxygenated blood from herat to lungs
  32. Hepatic portal vein: blood vessel that conducts blood from gastrointestinal tract and spleen to the liver.
  33. Brain parts
  34. Medulla: lower half of brainstem. Contains cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and vasometer centers and deals with involuntary functions (breathing, heart rate and blood pressure.
  35. Cerebrum: Contains cerebral cortex, functions in movement sensory processing, olfaction, language, communication, learning and memory
  36. Inferior pons: ?
  37. Superior pons: Establishes regularity of respiration
  38. Digestion
  39. Mouth: digestion begins here with alpha-amylase which is in saliva and digests carbohydrates.
  40. Esophagus: no digestion occurs only peristalsis which move bolus
  41. Stomach: mixes and stores food reducing it to chyme, protein digestion begins here.
  42. Mucus cells: secrete mucus
  43. Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen and precursor for pepsin which begins protein digestion
  44. Parietal cells: secrete HCl to lower pH of stomach and raise pH of blood. Also secrete intrinsic factor which helps ileum absorb B12.
  45. G cells: secrete gastrin which stimulate parietal cells to secrete HCl
  46. Small intestine: 90% of absorption and digestion occurs here
  47. Duodenum
  48. Ileum
  49. Jejenum
  50. Large intestine: water and electrolyte absorption.
  51. Ascending colon
  52. Transverse colong
  53. Descending colon
  54. Sigmoid colong
  55. Rectum
  56. Anus
  57. Hormones:
  58. Anterior Pituitary
  59. Follicle-stimulating: follicle maturation; spermatogenesis
  60. Luteinizing: ovulation; testosterone synthesis
  61. Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH): stimulate adrenal cortex to make/secrete glucocorticoids
  62. Thyroid: stimulating: stimulates thyroid to make hormones
  63. Prolactin: stimulate milk production/secretion
  64. Endorphins: inhibit perception of pain
  65. Growth hormone: bone/muscle growth
  66. Hypothalamus store in posterior pituitary
  67. Oxytocin: uterine contraction and milk secretion
  68. Vasopressin (ADH): water reabsorption in kidneys
  69. Thyroid
  70. T3 and T4: metabolic activity
  71. Calcitonin: decrease blood calcium level
  72. Parathyroid: increase blood calcium level
  73. Adrenal Cortex
  74. Glucocorticoids: increase blood glucose level and decrease protein synthesis
  75. Mineralocorticoids: increase water reabsorption in kidneys
  76. Adrenal medulla
  77. Epinephrine/Norepi: increase blood glucose level and heart rate
  78. Pancreas
  79. Glucagon: convert glycogen to glucose in liver and increase blood glucose
  80. Insulin: lowers blood glucose, increase glycogen stores
  81. Somatostatin: Supress secretion of glucagon and insulin
  82. Testes
  83. Testosterone: maintains male secondary sexual chracterists
  84. Ovary/Placenta
  85. Estrogen: maintains female secondary sexual characteristics
  86. Progesterone: promotes growth/maintenance of endometrium
  87. Plant growth
  88. Thigmotropism: plant moves or grows in response to touch or contact stimuli
  89. Thermotropism: plant moves in response to change in temperature
  90. Heliotropism: seasonal motion of plant parts in response to direction of the sun
  91. Geotropism: growth movement by plant in response to gravity
  92. Phototropism: growth of organisms in response to light
  93. How to test that photosynthesis is taking place? Put iodine on the plant
  94. Applying things to one side of a plant
  95. Lanolin paste: protects against ravages of climate and environment; This will cause the plant to bend toward the side without the paste
  96. Short day plants vs Long day plants
  97. Short-day: flower when day lengths are less that critical photopeiod
  98. Long-day: flower when the day length exceeds their critical photoperiod
  99. Definitions
  100. Succession: series of changes in an ecological community that occur over time after a distrubance
  101. Seral stages: successional stage of an ecosystem from a disturbed unvegetated state to a climax plant community
  102. Microsere: terminating by the loss of identity of the habitat and without the development of a climax
  103. Biomes: large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying major habitat e.g. forest or tundra
  104. Biomes
  105. Tundra: extremely cold climate, with few plants and animals. Makes up 1/5th of earth’s land surface.
  106. Desert: Very hot and dry with little rain
  107. Taiga: swampy coniferous forest of high northern latitudes.
  108. Rainforest: Hot, humid with equatorial climate and biggest biodiversity. Almost half of the world’s species live there.
  109. Savannah/Tropical grasslands: hot and dry, mainly grass, scrub and some trees. Two distinct seasons: dry season and rainy season.
  110. Ocean Zones
  111. Abyssal: depths or bed of the ocean between 3000 and 6000 meters down
  112. Neritic: the belt or region of shallow water adjoining the seacoast
  113. Pelagic: any water in a sea or lake that is neither close to the bottom nor near the shore
  114. Littoral: part of sea, lake or river that is close to the shore. Exposed during low tide and covered during high tide.
  115. Definition
  116. Ecology: study of interactions among organisms and their environment
  117. Kingdom
  118. Phylum
  119. Class
  120. Order
  121. Family
  122. Genus
  123. Species: organisms that can reproduce fertile offspring with eachother
  124. Community: organized collection of interacting species
  125. Population activities
  126. Survival of the fittest: predicts that one species will exploit the environment more efficiently, eventually leading to the extinction of the other with the same niche
  127. R-selection: producing large numbers of offspring that mature rapidly with no parental care (high mortality rate)
  128. K-selection: small number of offspring, slow maturation and strong parental care
  129. Speciation: process by which a new species is formed
  130. Adaptive radiation: occurs when several separate species arise from a single ancestral species
  131. Evolutionary bottleneck: species may face a crisis so severe as to cause a shift in allelic frequencies of the survivors of the crisis
  132. Divergent evolution: exists when two or more species evolving from the same group maintain a similar structure from the common ancestor
  133. Convergent evolution: two species independently evolve similar structures
  134. Polymorphism: occurrence of distinct forms
  135. Symbiosis: relationship between two species
  136. Mutualism: beneficial for both
  137. Commensalism: beneficial for one and not affect the other
  138. Parasitism: beneficial for one and detrimental to the other