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Jackson

-New AHSGE Science Study Guide

Standard I: Select appropriate laboratory glassware, balances, time measuring equipment, and optical instruments to conduct an experiment.

FLASKGraduated Cylinders

Flasks- can be used for making solutions Graduated cylinders are use to

or for holding, containing, collecting, or accurately measure liquids

sometimes volumetrically measuring, mixing,

heating, cooling, dissolving,

precipitation, boiling (as in distillation),

or analysis (Wikipedia.com)

BEAKERCOMPOUND MICROSCOPE

Beaker- A beaker is a simple container Compound Microscope-A microscope

for stirring, mixing and heating liquids, they consisting of an objective and an

are commonly used in any laboratory.opposite ends of an adjustable tube

(Wikipedia.com)

MICROSCOPE SLIDETest Tube

Microscope slides are used to view specimen

under a microscope.

PETRI DISH PIPETTE

Also known as a dropper

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSPORT

Standard II: Describe the cell process necessary for achieving homeostasis, including active and passive transport, osmosis, diffusion, exocytosis, and endocytosis.

  1. In Biology, when the body or a cell has reached a state of equilibrium (equal) then that means that it is maintaining homeostasis.
  2. Active transport is a type of transport that takes place in the cell. Active transport moves substances from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration. It requires energy and is aided by transport proteins. In active transport, cells are working against a concentration gradient.

3 Type of Active Transport

  1. Sodium Potassium Pump (Protein Pumps)- transports proteins that requires energy to do work.
  2. Endocytosis- the movement of substances into to the cell through the vesicles.
  3. Exocytosis- the movement of substance out of the cell through the vesicles.
  1. Passive transport is a type of transport that takes place in the cell in which substances move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration without the use of energy. Substances move down the concentration gradient.

3 Type of Passive Transport

  1. Diffusion- the movement of substances from an area of high to low concentration.
  2. Facilitated Diffusion-the movement of substances from an area of high to low concentration with the aid of carrier proteins.
  3. Osmosis-the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

*****There are three types of osmotic solutions.

  • Isotonic
  • Hypotonic
  • Hypertonic

Three Types of Osmotic Solutions

/ If the concentration of solute (salt) is equal on both sides, the water will move back and forth but it won't have any result on the overall amount of water on either side.
"ISO" means the same
/ The word "HYPO" means less, in this case there are less solute (salt) molecules outside the cell, since salt sucks, water will move into the cell.
The cell will gain water and grow larger. In plant cells, the central vacuoles will fill and the plant becomes stiff and rigid, the cell wall keeps the plant from bursting
In animal cells, the cell may be in danger of bursting, organelles called CONTRACTILE VACUOLES will pump water out of the cell to prevent this.
/ The word "HYPER" means more, in this case there are more solute (salt) molecules outside the cell, which causes the water to be sucked in that direction.
In plant cells, the central vacuole loses water and the cells shrink, causing wilting.
In animal cells, the cells also shrink.
In both cases, the cell may die.
This is why it is dangerous to drink sea water - its a myth that drinking sea water will cause you to go insane, but people marooned at sea will speed up dehydration (and death) by drinking sea water.
This is also why "salting fields" was a common tactic during war, it would kill the crops in the field, thus causing food shortages.

PHOTOSYTNTHESIS AND CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Standard 3: Identify reactants and products associated with photosynthesis and cellular respiration, and the purposes of these two processes.

There are two processes that are essential to survival in an ecosystem: Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration.

Photosynthesis- the process by which plants take in energy from the sun along with water and carbon dioxide to produce glucose (sugar) and oxygen. This process takes place in chloroplast of the cell. There are three main factors that affect photosynthesis and they are light intensity, water availability, and temperature fluctuation.

Formula: 6CO2 + 2H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2

CARBON WATER GLUCOSE OXYGEN

DIOXIDE

Cellular Respiration- the process in which glucose and oxygen are used, carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of ATP is produced. This process takes place in the mitochondria of the cell. The primary purpose of this process is to make chemical energy from glucose molecules.

Formula: C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + ENERGY

GLUCOSE OXYGEN CARBON WATER ATP

DIOXIDE

NOTE: The left hand side of the formula represents the reactants. The right hand side represents the products. What goes into photosynthesis comes out of cellular respiration.

THE CELL AND ITS ORGANELLES

Standard 4: Describe similarities and differences of cell organelles, using diagrams and tables.

There are two types of organisms, prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

  1. Prokaryotes- organism that does not contain a nucleus or membrane bound organelles. But, they do have cytoplasm and cell/plasma membranes. The internal structures of eukaryotes are simple.Ex. bacteria
  2. Eukaryotes- organisms that contain a membrane bound nucleus and organelles. The internal structures of eukaryotes are complex. Ex. plant and animal cells

********There are two types of Eukaryotic cells: Plant cells and animal cells.

CELL COMPARISON

Internal Structure / Nucleus Present / Membrane Bound Organelles
Eukaryote / Prokaryote / Eukaryote / Prokaryote / Eukaryote / Prokaryote
Complex / Simple / Yes / No / Yes / No

The plant and animal cells share the same organelles except that plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, and central (large) vacuole.

Cell Organelles

  1. Cytoplasm-the liquid inside the cell
  2. Cell/Plasma membrane-made of lipids and proteins, it is the boundary of the cell and control what enters and leaves the cell.
  3. Nucleus-control center of the cell where the genetic material is found
  4. Cell wall-surrounds the plant cell and is made of cellulose
  5. Ribosomes-very small organelles that are the sites of protein synthesis.
  6. Endoplasmic reticulum- system of tubes in the cytoplasm involved in transporting materials (the rough ER has ribosomes attached and the smooth does not)
  7. Golgi Apparatus-involved in packaging and distribution
  8. Mitochondria-site of cellular respiration and is the powerhouse of the cell, where ATP is made
  9. Lysosomes-stores digestive enzymes
  10. Chloroplast-site of photosynthesis, where chlorophyll is made
  11. Vacuole-involved in food storage

Organization of Cells

Standard 5: Identify cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities, and ecosystems as levels or organization in the biosphere.

The following is the correct way for living structures to be organized:

Molecules>cells>tissues>organs>organ systems>organism>population>community>ecosystem>biosphere

Note: The cell is the least complex of the organization and the ecosystem is the most complex of the organization.

Levels of Organization Chart

Level of Organization

/

Explanation

/

Example

Cell / the smallest unit of life, a cell is a collection of organelles functioning together / Bacteria, Animal & Plant
Tissues / a collections of cells working together to perform a specific job / Epithelial & Connective
Organs / two or more types of tissues that work together to complete a specific task / Heart, Stomach, Brain
Organ System / several organs working in unison to achieve a common goal / Digestive, Cardiovascular & Respiratory
Organism / several organ systems functioning together / Humans, Bird, Frog & Dog
Population / groups of individual organisms of the same species working together to achieve a common goal / Humans, Bees & Ants
Community / A group of plants and animals living (different species) interacting with one another in a specific region under relatively similar environmental conditions. / All the creatures & plants found in the woods
Ecosystem / An ecological community together with its environment, functioning as a unit. / wetlands, oak forest
Biosphere / The land, water, and air environments in which an organism exists. / All ecosystems

Example: You may have the following organization:

oak tree>oak forest, squirrels, deer>forests, animals sunlight, soil, water

Woodlawn high school student> student body>the faculty, staff, and student body>Woodlawn High school and its surroundings, Woodlawn, Eastlake, Avondale and all other communities

This means that this organization represents the organism>population>community>ecosystem

Meiosis and Mitosis

Standard 6: Describe the roles of meiotic and mitotic divisions during reproduction, growth, and repair of cells.

Note: Cells can reproduce either by sexual or asexual reproduction.

There are two types of cell division: Mitosis and Meiosis

  1. Mitosis- a type or reproduction in which the cell divides and produces 2 daughter cells (diploid cells) that are identical to the parent cell.(asexual reproduction) (no variation)
  2. Meiosis- a type of cell division in which the parent cell will divide twice and produce 4 gametes(sex cells which are haploid) (sexual reproduction- reproducing using a sperm and egg cell) (causes variation and diversity)

Note: Although meiosis and mitosis are two different processes they do share similarities within their stages. One difference in their stages is that crossing over only occurs during meiosis.

The Stages of Meiosis and Mitosis

Note: In Meiosis each sex cell will contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell (haploid or n). Once the sperm cell and the egg cell fuse to form the zygote the chromosome number doubles and the resulting cell will be labeled as (diploid or 2n).

Note: The diagram below represents Meiosis in Humans because humans have 23 pairs of chromosome which equals 46 total chromosomes.

Note: Chromosomes are made up of DNA molecules. DNA has a double helix shape.

The two types of reproduction are sexual and asexual reproduction.

  1. sexual reproduction – reproduction using the sperm cell and the egg cell.(Meiosis)
  2. asexual reproduction-reproduction between one organism without the use the sperm cell and the egg cell.

4 Types of Asexual Reproduction

  • Fission- asexual reproduction in which a organism splits into two equal parts.
  • Budding- asexual reproduction in which an organism can grow another organism from the top, bottom, or sides of the organisms body.
  • Regeneration- asexual reproduction in which an organism can re-grow missing body parts
  • Fragmentation- asexual reproduction in which an can be broken or cut up and those parts will grow into a totally new but identical organism.

Genetics and Heredity

Standard 7: Apply Mendel’s laws to determine phenotypic and genotypic probabilities of offspring.

1. Genetics is the study of heredity.

2. Heredity is the passing of traits from parent to offspring.

3. Genes are subunits of DNA that determines the inherited characteristics (traits) of an individual.

4. Punnett Squares are used to predict the outcome of a genetic cross. Scientists use a punnett square to predict the possible off springs that can be produced between two organisms. It shows the number of individuals that will have a particular gene pair. Each individual square represents ¼ or 25% of the whole square.

Note: Letters are assigned by an individual to represent the various trait or characteristics to displayed using the punnett square. Any letter(s) can represent a trait or characteristic.

  • Capital letters(ABCD etc.) represents the dominant genes
  • Lower case letters(efghi etc.) represent the recessive genes.
  • Gene pairs can either be heterozygous (containing two different genes) or homozygous (containing two same genes).
  • Homozygous gene pairs can either be homozygous dominant (ex.BB) or homozygous recessive (ex.qq) .

5. Traits are inherited characteristics.

6. Alleles are the multiple forms of gene. Ex. Tt or TT can represent a person that is tall.

7. Genotypes are the combinations of alleles for a particular trait (homozygous or heterozygous. Ex. The gene pair Bb or BB can represent a person that has brown eyes but Bb is heterozygous and BB is homozygous.So these are the combinations or multiple forms of a gene.

8. Phenotypes are the physical characteristics of an organism that shows how the genes are expressed. Ex. Whenlooking at a gene pair you should be able to tell color, height, sex, etc.

Try This!!!

If T= tall and t = short what will be the possible offspring of two parents in which one parent is heterozygous(Tt) and the other parent is homozygous recessive (tt). Tt x tt

Here is how to work your problem.

THIS MEANS:

½ or 50% of the offspring can be tall (Tt)

½ or 50% of the offspring can be short (tt)

In Reference to Phenotypes and Genotypes

Genotype (genes): (How the letters look): ½ or 50% of the offspring can be heterozygous

½ or 50% of the offspring can be homozygous recessive

Phenotype (physical traits or characteristics):

½ or 50% of the offspring can be tall

½ or 50% of the offspring can be short

The Structure and Function of DNA, RNA, and Protein

Standard 8: Identify the structure and function of DNA, RNA, and Protein

DNA

  1. What is DNA? DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses
  2. Where does DNA come from? It can be found all over an organism in its cells.
  3. What does DNA look like? It is the shape of a double helix.DNA molecules consists of two polynucleotide strands coiled around each other in a helical "twisted ladder" structure. The sugar-phosphate backbone is on the outside of the double helix, and the bases are on the inside, so that a base on one strand points directly toward a base on the second strand. When using the twisted ladder analogy, think of the sugar-phosphate backbones as the two sides of the ladder and the bases in the middle as the rungs of the ladder. In effect, each strand of DNA is one-half of the double helix. The two halves come together to form the double helix structure.
  1. What is the function/purpose of DNA?

The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints or a recipe, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information.

NOTE:DNA preserves the genetic code from one generation to the next through the process of DNA replication.

DNA replication is the process of copying a double-stranded DNA molecule to form two double-stranded molecules.[1][2] The process of DNA replication is a fundamental process used by all living organisms as it is the basis for biological inheritance. As each DNA strand holds the same genetic information, both strands can serve as templates for the reproduction of the opposite strand.

The Structure and Components of DNA

1. DNA ismade up of smaller unit called nucleotides.

2. A nucleotide is a chemical compound that is a structural unit of DNA and RNA

Nucleotides contain three parts:

  • a sugar (The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose)
  • a phosphate group
  • a nitrogen base

DNA Bases

There are 4 nitrogenous bases and they are as follow: Adenine(A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), & Thymine (T)

•Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are purines, that is, they have nitrogen bases that have two rings.

•Thymine (T) and cytosine (C) pyrimidines, that is, they have nitrogen bases with one ring.

DNA Base Pairing

The rule is that adenine (A) forms a base pair with thymine (T), as does guanine (G) with cytosine (C) in DNA.As a consequence of this pairing in DNA, there are always the same number of A and T residues and G and C residues (this is known as Chargaff's rule).

Chargaff's Rules

•Erwin Chargaff discovered that:

–The percentages of guanine [G] and cytosine [C] bases are almost equal in any sample of DNA.

–The percentages of adenine [A] and thymine [T] bases are almost equal in any sample of DNA.

Ex. Use the chart below to answer the following question.

Question: Which student correctly identified possible percentages of nucleotide bases that could be present in complete sample of DNA?

Hint: Remember Chargaff’s Rule above: A and T will have the same percentages in any sample of DNA and so will G and C.

Student / Amount of Base DNA %
A / T / G / C
1 / 25 / 15 / 25 / 15
2 / 30 / 20 / 20 / 30
3 / 15 / 30 / 30 / 15
4 / 15 / 15 / 40 / 40

Example of DNA Base Pairing

ATCGACG

TAGCTGC

Now try this strand: TTCAGCCT ANSWER: TTCAGCCT

AAGTCGGA

*****This means that these two strands above are complimentary to each other.

RNA

  1. What is RNA? Ribonucleic Acidis a nucleic acid that is made from a long chain of nucleotide units.
  2. What does RNA look like? It is single stranded which means that it is half of the double helix.
  1. Where does RNA come from? DNA
  2. What is the function/purpose of RNA? There are 3 different types of RNA and each one has its own function.

3 Types of RNA