Energy Use, Blue Water Footprint, and Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Current Food Consumption Patterns and Dietary Recommendations in the US

Supplementary Information

Michelle S. Tom1, Paul S. Fischbeck2,3, Chris T. Hendrickson1

1Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Carnegie Mellon University,

5000 Forbes Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States

2Department of Engineering and Public Policy,

Carnegie Mellon University,5000 Forbes Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States

3Department of Social and Decision Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University,5000 Forbes Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States

Corresponding author email:

1.Methods and Data

1.1DailyCalories per US adult

1.1.1Methods for Estimating Current and Recommended Daily Calories

Anthropometric parameters for the Resting Energy Expenditure (REE) predictive equations along with physical activity data are retrieved from the CDC National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, which interviews and examines thousands of respondents in the US each year (CDC 2014). Requisite anthropometric data for each adult respondent is input into the eight REE equations to calculate a range of predicted REEs for each respondent. Additionally, Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET) scores, which provide energy expenditures for given physical activities at a designated intensity, are used to determine the Caloric cost of each activity in which individuals participate (Gerrior et al. 2006). The sum of these scores are then used to estimatetotal physical activity levels (PALs) (sedentary:1.0 ≤ PAL <1.4, low active:1.4 ≤ PAL <1.6, active: 1.6 ≤ PAL <1.9, or very active: 1.9 ≤ PAL <2.5) for each respondent. The corresponding physicalactivity factors for each level are 1.0, 1.12, 1.27, and 1.54 for men and 1.0, 1.14, 1.27, and 1.45 for women, respectively (Gerrior et al. 2006). The products of REEs and physical activity factors yield a range of daily Caloric intake, or Total Energy Expenditure (TEE), for each respondent. A basic formulation for daily per-capita TEE in the US then follows as:

/ (1)

Where m represents the number of adults surveyed, n represents the number of adults in the US (US Census Bureau 2013) and Weight Factori is the number of people in the US that survey participant, i, represents. The weight factor parameters are specified by the CDC and applied to this analysis to ensure adequate representation of Caloric intake estimates for the US population.

Daily recommended Caloric intake is estimated in a similar manner. However, for REE in equation 2, actual weight is replaced with maximum healthy or “normal” weight (MNW), which is estimated as:

/ (2)

Where BMI is set to 25, the overweight threshold, and H is height in meters (CDC 2015).

The difference between TEE and recommended TEE is the amount of extra Calories an individual consumes. Extra Caloric intake is estimated for each overweight and obese respondent. This study does not account for the deprivation of Calories by underweight individuals or for normal weight examinees whose weights fall below their estimated maximum normal weight values. Underweight and normal weight individuals, however, are included in the total adult population estimates.

1.1.2Food Calorie Estimates and Food Loss Estimates

Table 1. Daily Caloric Intake per US Adulta

2010 / Current Caloric Intake / Recommended Caloric Intake / Extra Caloric Intake / Percentage Extra
Mifflin et al (1990) / 2,290 / 2,110 / 180 / 8.2%
Harris & Benedict (1919) / 2,350 / 2,130 / 220 / 9.4%
Roza & Shizgal (1984) / 2,430 / 2,220 / 210 / 8.8%
Livingston (2005) / 2,270 / 2,090 / 180 / 7.9%
Muller et al (2004) / 2,410 / 2,190 / 220 / 8.8%
Schofield (1985) / 2,430 / 2,220 / 210 / 8.5%
Henry (2005) / 2,390 / 2,150 / 240 / 9.8%
Owen et al (1986, 1987) / 2,280 / 2,110 / 170 / 7.2%
Averageb / 2,390 / 2,190 / 200 / 8.5%
a Caloric intake estimates exclude Calories associated with food losses at the retail and consumer levels.
b Average estimates are the mean of the values estimated from the eight REE equations.

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Table 2. Daily Caloric Intake of Individual Foods per US Adulta

Food Group / Current Caloric
Intakeb / USDA Recommended Food Mix @ 2,000 Caloriesc / USDA Recommended Food Mix @ 2,200 Caloriesc / USDA Recommended Food Mix @ 2,400 Caloriesc / Caloric Intake (Dietary Scenario 1)d / Caloric Intake (Dietary Scenario 2)e / Caloric Intake (Dietary Scenario 3)f
Fruits/Fruit Juice / 114 / 210 / 210 / 210 / 104 / 210 / 210
Vegetables / 127 / 195 / 234 / 234 / 116 / 234 / 231
Dairy / 261 / 465 / 465 / 465 / 239 / 465 / 465
Grains / 547 / 487 / 568 / 649 / 500 / 644 / 562
Protein / 480 / 370 / 401 / 435 / 394 / 433 / 399
Meat / 259 / 153 / 167 / 176 / 237 / 175 / 166
Poultry / 153 / 100 / 110 / 116 / 140 / 115 / 109
Eggs / 33 / 27 / 30 / 31 / 30 / 31 / 30
Fish/Seafood / 14 / 39 / 44 / 49 / 13 / 48 / 43
Nuts, seeds, soy / 22 / 51 / 51 / 63 / 20 / 63 / 51
Added sugars / 293 / 15 / 31 / 65 / 268 / 62 / 30
Solid Fats / 209 / 15 / 31 / 65 / 191 / 62 / 30
Oils / 356 / 243 / 261 / 279 / 326 / 278 / 260
Total / 2,390 / 2,000 / 2,200 / 2,400 / 2,190 / 2,390 / 2,190
a Caloric intake estimates exclude Calories associated with food losses at the retail and consumer levels.
b Current Caloric intake for individual foods are estimated based on the Centers for Disease Control 2007-10 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), which presents average daily intake of food (per 2000 calories) by food group and demographic characteristics (CDC 2014, USDA 2014a).
cRecommended food mix is based on the Benchmark Food Density chart found in the USDA Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010, which presents recommended daily intake of individual foods at various Caloric intake levels(US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Health and Human Services 2010).
d Dietary Scenario 1 accounts for a reduction in Caloric intake only, without shifting the current US diet to the USDA recommended food mix.
e Dietary Scenario 2 accounts for a shift to the USDA recommended food mix only, without reducing total Caloric intake.
f Dietary Scenario 3 accounts for both a reduction in Caloric intake and a shift to the USDA recommended food mix.

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Table 3. Food Losses and Daily Caloric Consumptionper US Adulta

Food Group / Retail Level Food Losses (Percentage)b / Consumer Level Food Losses (Percentage)b / Total Retail and Consumer Level Food Losses (Percentage)b / Current Caloric Consumptionc / Caloric Consumption (Dietary Scenario 1)d / Caloric Consumption (Dietary Scenario 2)e / Caloric Consumption
(Dietary Scenario 3)f
Fruits/Fruit Juice / 11% / 28% / 40% / 190 / 173 / 349 / 349
Processed Fruits / 6% / 15% / 21%
Vegetables / 11% / 21% / 32% / 187 / 172 / 344 / 340
Processed Vegetables / 6% / 15% / 21%
Fluid Milk / 12% / 20% / 32% / 384 / 350 / 684 / 684
Other Dairy Products / 8% / 20% / 29%
Grains / 12% / 19% / 31% / 793 / 724 / 933 / 814
Protein / -- / -- / -- / 647 / 591 / 589 / 544
Meat / 5% / 23% / 28% / 360 / 328 / 244 / 231
Poultry / 4% / 17% / 21% / 193 / 177 / 146 / 138
Eggs / 7% / 21% / 28% / 45 / 42 / 43 / 41
Fish/Seafood / 8% / 32% / 40% / 23 / 21 / 80 / 72
Nuts, seeds, soy / 6% / 11% / 17% / 26 / 24 / 75 / 61
Added sugars / 11% / 29% / 40% / 488 / 445 / 104 / 49
Solid Fats / 19% / 20% / 39% / 342 / 313 / 102 / 49
Oils / 19% / 20% / 39% / 584 / 533 / 456 / 426
Total / -- / -- / -- / 3,620 / 3,300 / 3,560 / 3,260
aCaloric consumption estimates include Calories associated with food losses at the retail and consumer levels.
bSource of food lossestimates:US Department of Agriculture 2014b; Buzby et al. 2014
cCurrent Caloric consumption estimates are obtained by applying the food loss percentages at the retail and consumer levels to the current Caloric intake estimates shown in Table 2 above.
d Dietary Scenario 1 accounts for a reduction in Caloric intake only, without shifting the current US diet to the USDA recommended food mix. Food losses at the retail and consumer levels are applied to the Caloric intake estimates for dietary Scenario 1 to obtain Caloric consumption values.
eDietary Scenario 2 accounts for a shift to the USDA recommended food mix only, without reducing total Caloric intake. Food losses at the retail and consumer levels are applied to the Caloric intake estimates for dietary Scenario 2 to obtain Caloric consumption values.
f Dietary Scenario 3 accounts for both a reduction in Caloric intake and a shift to the USDA recommended food mix. Food losses at the retail and consumer levels are applied to the Caloric intake estimates for dietary Scenario 3 to obtain Caloric consumption values.

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1.2Meta-Analysis of EnvironmentalIntensities for Foods

The information presented in Table 4 is drawn from published life-cycle assessment (LCA) studies for food products evaluated in our study. The minimum and maximum values shown represent the minimum and maximum intensity factors found in the literature. The average estimates are the averages of all intensity values obtained for each food type. Some sources provide multiple estimates for the same food type to account for differences in geographic location, production methods, and/or cooking requirements. The total number of intensity values used in our analysis is displayed in the column, “Number of Estimates.” Additionally, proxies are used for food types for which data is unavailable. Proxies are displayed under the column, “Number of Sources.” This column also provides the number of studies contributing to the intensity factor estimates for each food type.

Table 5 presents the underlying data for the cumulative energy intensity values used in this analysis. Although the majority of food consumed in the US is also produced in the US (approximately, 83% by weight according to the USDA (2015)), there is a lack of US-based LCA studies for food products, particularly in terms of energy use. Hence, energy use estimates were taken from an extensive collection of both domestic and foreign-based LCA studies to account for all food types in our study, as well as to capture the full spectrum of energy intensity valuesfor different locations, production processes, technologies, system boundaries, etc. The USDA Loss-Adjusted Food Availability Data Set (2014b) was used to develop conversion factors that allowed us to transform energy use intensities from MJ/kg to MJ/kCal.

Table 6 presents the underlying data for the cumulative water intensity values used in this analysis. Two of the most comprehensive LCAs for the water footprints of food products were conducted by Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2011, 2012). We therefore, retrievethe majority of our water intensity values from these two sources - the exception being estimates for seafood products, which are not included in their analyses. Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2011, 2012) providegreen, blue, and grey water footprints for over 400 agricultural and animal products produced worldwide. Since the majority of our food is produced in the US,we use their US-based blue water footprint estimates, which include water use within the food supply chain from farm to retail. Their water footprints for agricultural products are weighted averages for crop production and various productionand irrigation methods used across the US, while their animal product water footprints are weighted averages for different livestock production practices (grazing, industrial, and mixed) implemented across the country. Additionally, we incorporate global averages from Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2011, 2012) for each food product in our analysis to account for US consumption of food produced overseas. Identifying import statistics for each food type by country of originis beyond the scope of this project; therefore, we use global averages to expand our range of blue water intensity values. The USDA Loss-Adjusted Food Availability Data Set (2014b) was used to develop conversion factors that allowed us to transform water use intensities from liters/kg to liters/kCal.

The greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions estimates are not shown here. However, we used the GHG emissions factors from the Heller and Keoleian (2014) study. The GHG estimates are provided in their online Supporting Information.

Note

1. 1 Calorie = 1 food Calorie = 1 kilocalorie (kCal) = 4,186.8 Joules.

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Table 4. Cumulative Energy Use and Blue Water Footprint Factors for 100+ Food Types

Energy Use / Blue Water Footprint
MJ/kCal / Number of / Number of / liters/kCal / Number of / Number of
Food Type / Average / min / max / Sources / Estimates / Average / min / max / Sources / Estimates
Grain products / 3.0E-03 / 8.3E-04 / 1.0E-02 / 8.1E-02 / 2.6E-02 / 2.4E-01
total wheat flours / 2.7E-03 / 8.0E-04 / 1.0E-02 / 3 / 16 / 6.9E-02 / 2.0E-02 / 2.2E-01 / 1 / 16
rice / 5.4E-03 / 1.7E-03 / 1.0E-02 / 2 / 5 / 2.2E-01 / 9.4E-02 / 3.7E-01 / 1 / 12
rye flour / 7.5E-03 / 1.5E-03 / 1.1E-02 / 1 / 3 / 4.5E-02 / 7.1E-03 / 9.2E-02 / 1 / 4
corn products / 2.6E-03 / 5.7E-04 / 1.0E-02 / 2 / 10 / 5.3E-02 / 1.5E-02 / 2.7E-01 / 1 / 12
barley products / 4.6E-03 / 5.7E-04 / 1.1E-02 / 2 / 5 / 5.4E-02 / 2.2E-02 / 8.7E-02 / 1 / 6
oat products / 5.4E-03 / 6.7E-04 / 1.0E-02 / 1 / 6 / 1.3E-01 / 4.9E-02 / 2.3E-01 / 1 / 8
Fresh fruit / 4.5E-02 / 1.7E-02 / 1.1E-01 / 3.2E-01 / 1.6E-01 / 7.1E-01
citrus / 1.1E-02 / 3.1E-04 / 2.2E-02 / 3 / 5 / 3.0E-01 / 1.2E-01 / 8.7E-01 / 1 / 10
apples / 6.1E-03 / 8.0E-04 / 1.6E-02 / 4 / 11 / 3.6E-01 / 2.6E-01 / 4.7E-01 / 1 / 2
apricots / 1.6E-03 / 1.1E-03 / 2.2E-03 / Cherries / 3 / 1.2E-01 / 1.1E-01 / 1.2E-01 / 1 / 2
avocados / 6.5E-04 / 6.5E-04 / 6.5E-04 / 1 / 1 / 2.6E-01 / 1.5E-01 / 3.7E-01 / 1 / 2
bananas / 1.3E-02 / 1.3E-02 / 1.3E-02 / 1 / 1 / 2.3E-01 / 1.1E-01 / 3.5E-01 / 1 / 2
blueberries / 1.6E-02 / 1.6E-02 / 1.6E-02 / 2 / 2 / 5.6E-01 / 5.3E-01 / 5.9E-01 / 1 / 2
cantaloupe / 7.1E-02 / 7.1E-02 / 7.1E-02 / 1 / 1 / 9.7E-02 / 8.6E-02 / 1.1E-01 / 1 / 2
cherries / 1.3E-02 / 9.1E-03 / 1.7E-02 / 1 / 3 / 1.1E+00 / 3.9E-01 / 1.6E+00 / 1 / 4
cranberries / 2.1E-02 / 1.2E-02 / 3.4E-02 / Berries / 10 / 2.4E-01 / 2.3E-01 / 2.5E-01 / 1 / 2
grapes / 1.3E-02 / 1.1E-02 / 1.4E-02 / 1 / 2 / 2.2E-01 / 1.4E-01 / 3.0E-01 / 1 / 2
honeydew / 6.7E-02 / 6.7E-02 / 6.7E-02 / 1 / 1 / 9.2E-02 / 8.1E-02 / 1.0E-01 / 1 / 2
kiwi / 1.9E-01 / 1.9E-01 / 1.9E-01 / 1 / 1 / 5.4E-01 / 2.8E-01 / 8.0E-01 / 1 / 2
mangoes / 1.8E-01 / 1.8E-01 / 1.8E-01 / 1 / 1 / 9.5E-01 / 5.6E-01 / 1.3E+00 / 1 / 2
papaya / 3.0E-01 / 3.0E-01 / 3.0E-01 / 1 / 1 / 1.3E-01 / 1.0E-01 / 1.6E-01 / 1 / 2
peaches / 5.9E-03 / 5.9E-03 / 5.9E-03 / 1 / 1 / 6.2E-01 / 4.5E-01 / 7.8E-01 / 1 / 2
pears / 5.5E-03 / 7.3E-04 / 1.5E-02 / Apples / 11 / 2.4E-01 / 1.6E-01 / 3.3E-01 / 1 / 2
pineapples / 6.2E-03 / 5.4E-03 / 7.0E-03 / 1 / 2 / 1.4E-02 / 9.8E-03 / 1.8E-02 / 1 / 2
plums / 1.5E-02 / 1.1E-02 / 2.1E-02 / Cherries / 3 / 7.4E-01 / 4.1E-01 / 1.1E+00 / 1 / 2
raspberries / 1.6E-02 / 1.4E-02 / 1.7E-02 / 3 / 3 / 2.7E-01 / 1.0E-01 / 4.4E-01 / 1 / 4
strawberries / 3.6E-02 / 1.8E-03 / 8.8E-02 / 3 / 5 / 2.5E-01 / 1.6E-01 / 3.3E-01 / 1 / 4
watermelon / 8.0E-02 / 8.0E-02 / 8.0E-02 / 1 / 1 / 2.0E-01 / 8.3E-02 / 3.1E-01 / 1 / 2
Processed fruit / -- / -- / -- / -- / -- / -- / -- / -- / -- / --
canned fruit / 4.1E-02 / 3.4E-02 / 4.7E-02 / 2 / 2 / 7.7E-01 / 1.4E-01 / 2.4E+00 / 1 / 6
frozen fruit / 1.1E-02 / 1.1E-02 / 1.5E-02 / 2 / 5 / 8.4E-02 / 4.5E-02 / 1.9E-01 / 1 / 6
dried fruit / 1.8E-02 / 1.3E-02 / 2.7E-02 / 2 / 4 / 3.9E-01 / 0.0E+00 / 1.4E+00 / 1 / 34
fruit juices / 8.1E-02 / 1.5E-02 / 2.3E-01 / 2 / 6 / 3.0E-01 / 1.7E-01 / 7.3E-01 / 1 / 18
Fresh vegetables / 3.3E-02 / 1.1E-02 / 8.3E-02 / 1.8E-01 / 6.7E-02 / 4.4E-01
artichokes / 6.2E-02 / 1.4E-03 / 3.4E-01 / All Fresh Veg / 58 / 7.6E-01 / 5.2E-01 / 1.0E+00 / 1 / 2
asparagus / 1.3E-02 / 1.3E-02 / 1.3E-02 / 1 / 1 / 3.6E+00 / 5.9E-01 / 6.6E+00 / 1 / 2
bell peppers / 8.9E-02 / 8.9E-02 / 8.9E-02 / 1 / 1 / 3.4E-01 / 2.1E-01 / 4.8E-01 / 1 / 2
broccoli / 1.0E-01 / 9.1E-02 / 1.2E-01 / 1 / 8 / 1.5E-01 / 6.2E-02 / 2.4E-01 / 1 / 2
brussel sprouts / 6.8E-02 / 8.6E-03 / 9.7E-02 / Broccoli/Cabbage / 10 / 1.2E-01 / 4.9E-02 / 1.9E-01 / 1 / 2
cabbage / 1.9E-02 / 1.6E-02 / 2.2E-02 / 1 / 2 / 3.1E-01 / 1.1E-01 / 5.0E-01 / 1 / 2
carrots / 6.8E-03 / 3.3E-03 / 9.8E-03 / 3 / 6 / 5.9E-02 / 4.9E-02 / 6.9E-02 / 1 / 2
cauliflower / 1.2E-01 / 1.5E-02 / 1.7E-01 / Broccoli/Cabbage / 10 / 2.1E-01 / 8.5E-02 / 3.3E-01 / 1 / 2
celery / 1.9E-02 / 1.9E-02 / 1.9E-02 / Asparagus / 1 / 1.7E-01 / 1.4E-01 / 2.0E-01 / 1 / 2
collards / 9.6E-02 / 1.2E-02 / 1.4E-01 / Broccoli/Cabbage / 10 / 2.0E-01 / 6.9E-02 / 3.9E-01 / Broccoli/Cabbage / 4
sweet corn / 1.1E-02 / 2.5E-03 / 4.4E-02 / Corn products / 10 / 1.8E-01 / 1.8E-01 / 1.8E-01 / 1 / 2
cucumbers / 2.0E-01 / 2.0E-01 / 2.0E-01 / Melons / 1 / 7.8E-01 / 3.6E-01 / 1.2E+00 / 1 / 2
eggplant / 2.1E-01 / 2.2E-02 / 5.3E-01 / Tomatoes / 10 / 2.6E-01 / 1.3E-01 / 3.8E-01 / 1 / 2
escarole & endive / 1.8E-01 / 4.4E-02 / 9.3E-01 / Lettuce / 13 / 2.2E-01 / 1.7E-01 / 2.7E-01 / Head lettuce / 2
garlic / 2.2E-03 / 1.9E-03 / 2.5E-03 / Onions / 2 / 9.0E-02 / 5.5E-02 / 1.2E-01 / 1 / 2
kale / 5.8E-02 / 7.3E-03 / 8.3E-02 / Broccoli/Cabbage / 10 / 1.4E-01 / 5.2E-02 / 2.3E-01 / 1 / 2
head lettuce / 2.3E-01 / 5.5E-02 / 1.2E+00 / 1 / 13 / 2.8E-01 / 2.2E-01 / 3.3E-01 / 1 / 2
romaine & leaf lettuce / 1.7E-01 / 4.2E-02 / 8.8E-01 / 1 / 13 / 2.1E-01 / 1.6E-01 / 2.5E-01 / 1 / 2
lima beans / 8.0E-02 / 1.8E-02 / 1.4E-01 / Snap beans / 4 / 8.3E-02 / 4.7E-02 / 1.2E-01 / 1 / 2
mushrooms / 2.2E-02 / 2.0E-02 / 2.4E-02 / 1 / 3 / 1.0E+00 / 9.1E-01 / 1.3E+00 / 1 / 3
mustard greens / 1.1E-01 / 1.4E-02 / 1.6E-01 / Broccoli/Cabbage / 10 / 2.7E-01 / 9.8E-02 / 4.4E-01 / Cabbage / 2
okra / 9.3E-02 / 2.1E-03 / 5.1E-01 / All Fresh Veg / 58 / 4.2E-01 / 1.2E-01 / 7.2E-01 / 1 / 2
onions / 7.9E-03 / 6.9E-03 / 9.0E-03 / 1 / 2 / 1.1E-01 / 1.1E-01 / 1.1E-01 / 1 / 1
potatoes / 9.4E-03 / 9.4E-04 / 4.1E-02 / 5 / 7 / 8.7E-02 / 4.7E-02 / 1.3E-01 / 1 / 2
pumpkin / 1.1E-01 / 1.1E-01 / 1.1E-01 / Squash / 1 / 1.0E-01 / 9.2E-02 / 1.2E-01 / 1 / 2
radishes / 1.8E-01 / 2.3E-02 / 2.6E-01 / Broccoli/Cabbage / 10 / 9.3E-02 / 9.3E-02 / 9.3E-02 / 1 / 1
snap beans / 2.9E-01 / 6.5E-02 / 5.1E-01 / 1 / 4 / 3.1E-01 / 4.3E-01 / 4.3E-01 / 1 / 6
spinach / 1.2E-01 / 2.8E-03 / 6.8E-01 / All Fresh Veg / 58 / 1.1E-01 / 5.9E-02 / 1.6E-01 / 1 / 2
squash / 1.8E-01 / 1.8E-01 / 1.8E-01 / 1 / 1 / 1.7E-01 / 1.5E-01 / 1.9E-01 / 1 / 2
sweet potatoes / 5.6E-03 / 5.6E-04 / 2.5E-02 / Potatoes / 7 / 2.7E-02 / 4.5E-03 / 4.9E-02 / 1 / 2
tomatoes / 2.9E-01 / 3.0E-02 / 7.3E-01 / 5 / 10 / 3.9E-01 / 3.6E-01 / 4.2E-01 / 1 / 2
turnip greens / 9.0E-02 / 1.1E-02 / 1.3E-01 / Broccoli/Cabbage / 10 / 7.4E-02 / 6.1E-02 / 8.6E-02 / 1 / 2
Processed vegetables / -- / -- / -- / -- / -- / -- / -- / -- / -- / --
Canned / 5.6E-02 / 2.6E-02 / 1.2E-01 / 4 / 16 / 6.0E-01 / 1.1E-01 / 1.7E+00 / 1 / 16
frozen / 3.7E-02 / 1.4E-02 / 6.8E-02 / 2 / 7 / 1.5E-01 / 4.7E-02 / 3.4E-01 / 1 / 14
processed and dehydrated / 4.9E-03 / 6.4E-04 / 1.2E-02 / 2 / 4 / 7.3E-02 / 6.6E-03 / 3.0E-01 / 1 / 18
Legumes / 6.2E-03 / 3.8E-03 / 8.4E-03 / 1 / 4 / 2.3E-01 / 9.5E-02 / 4.5E-01 / 1 / 8
Fluid milk / 1.1E-02 / 6.7E-03 / 1.6E-02 / 6 / 11 / 2.2E-01 / 1.4E-01 / 3.2E-01 / 1 / 10
Other dairy products / 1.4E-02 / 8.2E-03 / 2.1E-02 / 1.1E-01 / 9.1E-02 / 1.2E-01
Yogurt / 2.5E-02 / 1.8E-02 / 4.1E-02 / 2 / 4 / 1.5E-01 / 1.3E-01 / 1.6E-01 / 1 / 2
cheese / 1.7E-02 / 8.1E-03 / 2.5E-02 / 4 / 8 / 1.1E-01 / 1.0E-01 / 1.2E-01 / 1 / 8
cottage cheese / 7.5E-02 / 3.6E-02 / 1.1E-01 / Cheese / 8 / 3.0E-01 / 2.7E-01 / 3.4E-01 / 1 / 2
ice cream / 4.5E-03 / 2.2E-03 / 7.5E-03 / 2 / 5 / 6.8E-02 / 5.3E-02 / 8.2E-02 / Cream / 6
other frozen dairy / 1.9E+00 / 9.5E-01 / 3.2E+00 / Ice Cream / 5 / 3.0E+01 / 2.3E+01 / 3.5E+01 / Cream / 6
evaporated condensed milk / 6.0E-03 / 3.6E-03 / 8.7E-03 / Fluid milk / 11 / 1.2E-01 / 7.3E-02 / 1.7E-01 / Milk / 10
dry milk products / 1.2E-02 / 6.8E-03 / 1.6E-02 / 2 / 3 / 9.8E-02 / 8.7E-02 / 1.1E-01 / 1 / 6
half and half / 3.1E-02 / 3.1E-02 / 3.1E-02 / Cream / 1 / 2.3E-01 / 2.1E-01 / 2.6E-01 / 1 / 2
eggnog / 3.1E-02 / 3.1E-02 / 3.1E-02 / Cream / 1 / 1.5E-01 / 1.3E-01 / 1.6E-01 / 1 / 2
cream / 8.8E-03 / 8.8E-03 / 8.8E-03 / 1 / 1 / 6.4E-02 / 4.9E-02 / 7.6E-02 / 1 / 6
sour cream / 1.1E-02 / 1.1E-02 / 1.1E-02 / Cream / 1 / 7.2E-02 / 6.4E-02 / 8.0E-02 / 1 / 2
cream cheese / 2.1E-02 / 1.0E-02 / 3.1E-02 / Cheese / 8 / 1.4E-01 / 1.3E-01 / 1.6E-01 / 1 / 2
Meat / 1.4E-02 / 7.3E-03 / 2.1E-02 / 1.7E-01 / 6.2E-02 / 3.2E-01
beef / 1.5E-02 / 7.9E-03 / 2.5E-02 / 4 / 9 / 1.7E-01 / 8.8E-02 / 3.1E-01 / 1 / 24
veal / 2.0E-02 / 1.0E-02 / 3.3E-02 / Beef / 9 / 2.2E-01 / 1.2E-01 / 4.1E-01 / Beef / 24
pork / 1.2E-02 / 6.3E-03 / 1.6E-02 / 4 / 8 / 1.8E-01 / 1.9E-02 / 3.5E-01 / 1 / 32
lamb / 1.2E-02 / 1.7E-02 / 3.5E-03 / 3 / 9 / 9.0E-02 / 1.7E-01 / 2.8E-02 / 1 / 20
Poultry / 1.2E-02 / 7.4E-04 / 2.0E-02 / 5 / 14 / 1.3E-01 / 1.3E-01 / 1.4E-01 / 1 / 4
Fish and Seafood / 4.4E-02 / 1.5E-02 / 1.5E-01 / 9.4E-03 / 4.6E-03 / 1.9E-02
fresh and frozen fish / 4.3E-02 / 9.0E-03 / 2.0E-01 / 6 / 22 / 1.1E-02 / 3.5E-06 / 3.4E-02 / 1 / 3
fresh and frozen shellfish / 7.4E-02 / 2.1E-02 / 2.5E-01 / 3 / 13 / 2.0E-03 / 2.0E-03 / 2.0E-03 / 1 / 1
canned fish and shellfish / 2.6E-02 / 1.6E-02 / 3.6E-02 / 4 / 6 / 1.2E-02 / 1.2E-02 / 1.2E-02 / 1 / 1
cured fish / 3.8E-02 / 3.8E-02 / 3.8E-02 / Canned Fish / 6 / 1.2E-02 / 1.2E-02 / 1.2E-02 / Canned fish / 1
Eggs / 3.9E-03 / 3.9E-04 / 1.3E-02 / 2 / 5 / 2.0E-01 / 1.3E-01 / 3.5E-01 / 1 / 10
Nuts / 6.1E-04 / 5.4E-04 / 6.8E-04 / 1.8E-01 / 7.3E-02 / 4.4E-01
peanuts / 3.6E-04 / 3.3E-04 / 4.0E-04 / 1 / 3 / 4.3E-02 / 2.7E-02 / 6.4E-02 / 1 / 4
total tree nuts / 1.0E-03 / 8.7E-04 / 1.1E-03 / 1 / 2 / 4.9E-01 / 1.8E-01 / 1.2E+00 / 1 / 14
coconuts / 1.0E-03 / 8.7E-04 / 1.1E-03 / Total tree nuts / 2 / 1.8E-04 / 1.2E-04 / 2.5E-04 / 1 / 2
Added sugar and sweeteners / 2.9E-03 / 2.4E-03 / 3.9E-03 / 7.1E-02 / 3.3E-02 / 1.3E-01
cane and beet sugar / 1.7E-03 / 6.6E-04 / 3.7E-03 / 3 / 5 / 4.8E-02 / 6.6E-03 / 1.3E-01 / 1 / 16
honey and syrup / 9.1E-04 / 3.4E-04 / 1.5E-03 / 1 / 2 / 9.2E-02 / 5.6E-02 / 1.3E-01 / 1 / 2
corn sweeteners / 4.7E-03 / 4.7E-03 / 4.7E-03 / 1 / 1 / 9.2E-02 / 5.6E-02 / 1.3E-01 / 1 / 8
Added fats and oils / 2.3E-03 / 1.3E-03 / 3.3E-03 / 1.0E-01 / 1.4E-02 / 2.4E-01
butter / 4.7E-03 / 3.9E-03 / 5.8E-03 / 3 / 6 / 5.8E-02 / 5.2E-02 / 6.5E-02 / 1 / 2
margarine / 3.9E-03 / 3.1E-03 / 4.8E-03 / 2 / 4 / 1.9E-01 / 7.2E-03 / 4.9E-01 / Cooking oils / 14
lard and beef tallow / 3.8E-03 / 3.1E-03 / 4.7E-03 / Butter / 6 / 4.7E-02 / 4.1E-02 / 5.2E-02 / Butter / 2
shortening / 3.8E-03 / 3.1E-03 / 4.7E-03 / Butter / 6 / 4.7E-02 / 4.1E-02 / 5.2E-02 / Butter / 2
salad and cooking oils / 1.7E-03 / 6.0E-04 / 2.7E-03 / 2 / 5 / 1.2E-01 / 4.3E-03 / 3.0E-01 / 1 / 14
other added fats and oils / 2.7E-03 / 6.0E-04 / 4.7E-03 / All Fats & Oils / 15 / 1.1E-01 / 4.3E-03 / 3.0E-01 / All Fats & Oils / 16

Table 5. Meta-Analysis of Cumulative Energy Intensity Values

Food Product / MJ/kg / Location / LCA Boundary / Author
Grain Products
Bread / 12 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Andersson et al, 1999
Wheat bread, conventional farming / 5 / Germany / Farm to fork / Braschkat et al, 2003
Wheat bread, conventional farming / 6 / Germany / Farm to fork / Braschkat et al, 2003
Wheat bread, conventional farming / 8 / Germany / Farm to fork / Braschkat et al, 2003
Wheat bread, conventional farming / 9 / Germany / Farm to fork / Braschkat et al, 2003
Wheat bread, organic / 4 / Germany / Farm to fork / Braschkat et al, 2003
Wheat bread, organic / 5 / Germany / Farm to fork / Braschkat et al, 2003
Wheat bread, organic / 7 / Germany / Farm to fork / Braschkat et al, 2003
Wheat bread, organic / 8 / Germany / Farm to fork / Braschkat et al, 2003
Wheat flour / 5 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Whole wheat, cooked as one portion / 4 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Whole wheat, cooked as four portions / 3 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Couscous (durum wheat), cooked on a hot plate / 5 / Central Europe / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Couscous (durum wheat), cooked with a kettle / 5 / Central Europe / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Cereal, baked / 37 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Cereal, baked / 38 / Central Europe / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Rice / 10 / Sweden / Farm to retailer gate / Carlsson-Kanyama, 1998
Rice, cooked as one portion / 7 / Overseas / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Rice, cooked as four portions / 6 / Overseas / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Cereal, baked / 37 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Cereal, baked / 38 / Central Europe / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Rye flour / 5 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Cereal, baked / 37 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Cereal, baked / 38 / Central Europe / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Corn / 2 / Iowa / Farm to farm gate / Kim et al, 2009
Corn / 3 / Illinois / Farm to farm gate / Kim et al, 2009
Corn / 3 / Michigan / Farm to farm gate / Kim et al, 2009
Corn / 3 / Minnesota / Farm to farm gate / Kim et al, 2009
Corn / 2 / Minnesota / Farm to farm gate / Kim et al, 2009
Corn / 3 / Missouri / Farm to farm gate / Kim et al, 2009
Corn / 3 / Nebraska / Farm to farm gate / Kim et al, 2009
Corn / 2 / South Dakota / Farm to farm gate / Kim et al, 2009
Cereal, baked / 37 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Cereal, baked / 38 / Central Europe / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Barley, winter / 2 / Europe / Farm to farm gate / Foster et al, 2006
Barley, spring / 2 / Europe / Farm to farm gate / Foster et al, 2006
Barley, cooked / 2 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Cereal, baked / 37 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Cereal, baked / 38 / Central Europe / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Oat flakes / 11 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Oat flake porridge, cooked / 3 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Musli (raw rolled oats) with sun dried apples / 15 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Musli (raw rolled aots) with sun dried raisins / 17 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Cereal, baked / 37 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Cereal, baked / 38 / Central Europe / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Fresh fruit
Oranges, fresh / 7 / Southern Europe / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Oranges, fresh / 9 / Overseas / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Oranges, fresh / 0 / Brazil / Farm to farm gate / Coltro et al, 2009
Oranges, fresh / 6 / Brazil / Farm to farm gate / Coltro et al, 2009
Mandarin oranges / 1 / Peru / Farm to farm gate / Bartl et al, 2012
Apples, fresh / 4 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Apples, fresh / 5 / Central Europe / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Apples, fresh / 9 / Overseas / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Apples, locally gown / 6 / Germany / Farm to consumer home / Blanke and Burdick, 2005
Apples, imported, transported by sea / 8 / New Zealand / Farm to consumer home / Blanke and Burdick, 2005
Apples / 0.4 / Hawke's Bay, New Zealand / Farm to farm gate / Canals et al, 2006
Apples / 0.5 / Hawke's Bay, New Zealand / Farm to farm gate / Canals et al, 2006
Apples / 0.5 / Central Otago, New Zealand / Farm to farm gate / Canals et al, 2006
Apples / 0.7 / Hawke's Bay, New Zealand / Farm to farm gate / Canals et al, 2006
Apples / 0.7 / Central Otago, New Zealand / Farm to farm gate / Canals et al, 2006
Apples / 2 / Peru / Farm to farm gate / Bartl et al, 2012
Apricots / -- / -- / -- / --
Avocados / 1 / Peru / Farm to farm gate / Bartl et al, 2012
Bananas, fresh / 12 / Overseas / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Blueberries / 9 / Northern Italy / Farm to consumer / Girgenti et al, 2013
Blueberries / 9 / Northern Italy / Farm to consumer / Peano et al, 2015
Cantaloupe (Melon) / 24 / Italy / Farm to consumer / Cellura et al, 2012
Cherries, fresh / 5 / Sweden / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Cherries, fresh / 6 / Central Europe / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Cherries, fresh / 10 / Overseas / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Cranberries / -- / -- / -- / --
Grapes, fresh / 8 / Southern Europe / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Grapes, fresh / 10 / Overseas / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Honeydew (Melon) / 24 / Italy / Farm to consumer / Cellura et al, 2012
Kiwi (Tropical) / 115 / Overseas, by plane / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Mangoes (Tropical) / 115 / Overseas, by plane / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Papaya (Tropical) / 115 / Overseas, by plane / Farm to fork / Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2003
Peaches / 2 / Peru / Farm to farm gate / Bartl et al, 2012
Pears / -- / -- / -- / --