MI 331 — Comparative Religion

Tobias England

Religions Covered

  • Spiritism
  • Hinduism
  • Jainism
  • Buddhism
  • Sikhism
  • Zoroastrianism
  • Confucianism
  • Taoism
  • Shintoism
  • Islam

Notes

Early Religions

Religion is a world-wide phenomenon. Although there are certainly individuals who proclaim their personal atheism, anthropologists have yet to discover a single society without religious belief. By far most of the world’s religions are local and do not even claim to be universal. If religions are an explanatory model of the world, early religions tend to be simpler for no other reason than the world they were developed to explain was smaller.

Evolutionists see religion as beginning at the dawn of man. Though a Christian would reject this, he should not miss the intrinsic admission of the naturalist that religion is born of a universal longing in the human heart to bring meaning to his existence. One of the surest places to find religious observances in the more remote civilizations is in their burial grounds, and even the Cro-Magnon of the so called Stone Age buried their dead with food, weapons and ornaments. Often bodies were covered with a red paint, similar to that used on cave walls.

These paintings are largely believed to have religious significance as well. They are often found far from the mouth of the cave, where some kind of artificial light such as a torch would be needed both to create and discover them.

These early religions are predictably similar in a general sense. Professor John Noss in his book, Man’s Religions lists the following characteristics[1]:

  1. Recognition of the sacred.

There is always a different attitude towards that which is sacred. Whether a sacred idol, location, or person, reverence and fear are always seen. These spiritual forces are believed to be very powerful, and their blessings are bought or earned with respect, sacrifices, and strict obedience. Defiling the sacred causes a curse or even sudden death.

  1. Belief in mana

This is not a reference to God’s provision for the children of Israel! Mana, or sometimes dynamism, is a terms used to describe a belief that is found in the religions of American Indians, Pygmies of Africa, Morocco, the Bantu of South Africa, and aboriginal people all over the world. It is an invisible force that pervades the universe and is found in gods, men, animals, and natural objects. It is not a personality, but a force that can be transmitted between objects and people, between people themselves, or ever from people to objects. In some sense, it is the energy behind the magic.

  1. Magic

Magic is an attempt to control or manipulate the powers of the world. There are three main kinds of magic. Fetishism is the belief in power from inanimate objects. (e.g. a “magic wand”) These fetishes often have a personality, and supplication may progress from prayers and offerings to begging. If that doesn’t work, the owner might be stern with it and command its cooperation, and resort to chastising it if it does not comply. If this fails, the spirit has either left the fetish, or another stronger magic has overcome it. In either case the prudent owner, if sufficiently blessed with resources, will visit a magician to exchange it or get it charged up again.

Shamanism is where a person directly controls the spirits. This person is the conduit through which contact with the gods can be obtained. This is normally done through frenzied dances and casting of spells. A “witch doctor” is a common example of a shaman.

Popular Magic is not limited to priests or shamans, but can be practiced by anyone. This kind of magic is mostly based on rituals, rites and chants. If this magic fails, the person questions the performance of the rite, not the power of the magic.

  1. Tabu

Tabu is a word we use today (taboo), and with similar meaning. Something that is tabu is dealt with very fearfully, if at all.

  1. Purification rites

Purification rites often can cleanse someone of a tabu. These rituals free one from the wrath of the gods. Though there is much variety in these rites, major themes include fasting, cutting hair or nails, cleansing smoke fumes, washing with water or blood, or even slashing one’s body.

  1. Animism

Animism is the belief that humans, animals, and inanimate objects all have spirits or souls. In humans, that spirit temporarily leaves the body during a dream, and does so finally at death. As one author put it, “all nature is possessed, pervaded, crowded with spiritual beings. It requires vigilance and constant attention to stay on the good side of these spirits.

This belief is sometimes distinguishable from polytheism in that animism does not have major gods. All gods are local. The spirits of the dead were sometimes thought to be in a happier place, or are left to wonder the earth and haunt people.

  1. Nature and spirit worship

Noss writes, “It has been said truly that man has worshipped everything he could think of beneath the earth, everything between earth and heaven, and everything in the heaven’s above.” Romans 1:25 warns us that people will worship the creature more than the creator. Many regions of the world are known for their worship of specific animals, including the lion in Africa, the cow in India, and the bull in Greece and Egypt.

In somewhat more advanced societies, the elements of nature were worshiped: earth, air, fire and water. The sky was also worshiped, sometimes in relation to the “high god”. Though the earliest religions practiced little or no worship to this high god, he was seen as eternal, the creator, and just, albeit uninvolved in human affairs. This god is often thought of as the only answer to what have been called the ultimate questions of life. “Who am I? How did I (or the earth) get here? What happens after death?” More likely, however, this god is the remnant teachings from when all mankind knew the True God.

  1. Sacrifice

Primitive man soon found that the gods were not always easy to manipulate. Sometimes their lack of concern must be met with sacrifices. It is probable that every possession of value has at one time or another been used as a sacrifice. Food, weapons, animals, even humans were sacrificed to appease the gods and win their favor.

Many times these sacrifices were done in a designated temple or shrine, and in more advanced cultures, were overseen by priests. These priests held great authority over the people, and directly benefited from their superstition. Often, the office of political and religious leader were combined, making for a powerful ruler who held absolute sway.

  1. Ancestor worship

It is arguable whether ancestor worship began due to the benevolence of the supposed spirits or outright fear. The dead were often buried under a pile of stones, tied up, or even had a stake driven through their chest to keep them where they were put. In the Congo, thorns are scattered over the grave and on the path back to the village to discourage the spirit’s return.

The spirits of the Chinese, it seems, were more amiable. Their families paid them special honor, set out food for them, and prayed to them for wisdom. In return, these spirits were thought to grant favor and lend assistance to their decedents.

  1. Mythology

A myth is a story with religious significance that explains something about the universe. Though we often think of Greek mythology, almost every culture has creation myths. They are full of meaningful symbolism, and are sometimes reenacted in the form of rituals.

  1. Totemism

A totem is the supposed animal ancestor of a clan of people. Totem poles tell the history of a given clan in mythological form. Though the word is Ojibwa, the belief is found on nearly every continent of the world.

Case Study: The Dieri of South-East Australia

The Dieri would be classified as aboriginal, and their technology borders the Paleolithic era (most primitive) and the Neolithic era (late Stone Age, characterized by developing agriculturally, stone tools). They are dark complexioned, and are called by other Australians the “black fellows”. Their black hair is not tightly curled like an Africans, and they wear very little clothing. They are food-gatherers, having neither cultivated crops or cattle. Although this culture and many around them have been influenced by Western civilization, detailed records of their beliefs exist from early anthropologists.

The religious leader of this group was the medicine man, called a kunki. This man was thought to be able to communicate with the spirits, many of whom were their superhuman ancestors called the Mura-muras, and from whom he received his power. There was no such thing as a natural death. All death had a supernatural cause, and revenge was often sought by the family members. Everyone was a suspect when a death occurred, and if the consensus pointed to a specific person of if someone showed any guilt, they were hunted down and killed by the village elders’ request. However, not all death could be explained in this fashion, and for these cases it was understood that the spirits had put a curse on the person.

The close dependency of the Dieri on the climate made the medicine man a very important figure in controlling the weather. They believed the Mura-muras lived on the elevated plain of the sky and created the bodies that made rain, or clouds. In order to solicit more help from the Mura-muras in this mater, a hut was constructed over a hole in the ground. The village counsel, which consisted of the old men, would gather in this hut, and the primary medicine man would cut the arms of the men one at a time, who in turn would let their blood drip on the other men. Then several medicine men would throw handfuls of down in the air. The blood symbolized the rain, while the down was to symbolize clouds. The ceremony was completed when the counsel, joined by the younger men, butted the hut down with their heads.

For the Dieri, the sun set in a hole in the earth, and traveled underground to rise again in the east. As mentioned before, the sky was another country where the spirits, Mura-muras, and deceased live. They thought they were looking at the bottom of a river when the Milky Way was seen at night.

Becoming a man was not easy thing for a Dieri youth. Aside from some very painful rituals that were far more drastic than Old Testament circumcision and having his two front teeth knocked out, there was the Wilyaru ceremony. (The following was recorded by A. W. Howitt in The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland published in 1891.)

A young man without previous warning is led out of the camp by some older men who are of the relation of Neyi (approximately cousin in this case) to him, and not of near, but distant relationship. On the following morning, the men, old and young, except his father and elder brothers, surround him, and direct him to close his eyes. One of the old men then binds the arm of another old man tightly with a string, and with a sharp piece of flint lances the vein about an inch from the elbow, causing a stream of blood to fall over the young man, until he is covered with it, and the old man is becoming exhausted. Another man takes his place, and so on until the young man becomes quite stiff from the quantity of blood adhering to him. The reason given for this practice is that it infuses courage into the young man, and also shows him that the sight blood is nothing, so that should he receive a wound in warfare, he may account it a matter of no moment.

This particular ceremony concludes with the blood-covered youth receiving a gash in the neck and one on his back. He does not return to the village until the wounds heal and the blood wears off, usually several months. When he does return, he is required to give gifts to each of the elders who participated before being able to speak to them.

Death was a fearful thing and surrounded by rituals. Relatives form two parties, one consisting of the person’s father, siblings, and father’s family. This group would be painted white, they would be near the dying person, and would throw themselves wildly on his body as he died. The mother’s family would sit at a distance, careful not to look into his face, lest in longing he draw them to him and they die as well. The men of this group, painted in red, would dig the grave.

Before burial, the corpse balanced on the heads of two men and allowed to fall. The direction if pointed to indicated the party guilty of his death, sometimes being interpreted as a neighboring tribe that lived in that general direction. One of the older men on the mother’s side of the family would then cut the fat off the corpse’s stomach, thighs, arms, and face. This was distributed to the family members on both sides who then ate it in an attempt to share in the virtue and strength of the deceased.

To complete the funeral, a large sack of wood was placed on top of the filled in grave, and the relatives shifted camp. Then deceased was never spoken of or about again, so as not to disturb the dead. Sometimes the corpse had his thumbs bound behind his back, as well as his toes tied together to prevent return. The ground around the grave was often swept and checked in the morning to make sure there were not tracks.

Major Classifications of Faiths

  1. Atheism

Our word for someone who does not believe in a god is the negative of the Greek word for god, theos. This person believes that God does not exist.

  1. Agnosticism

An agnostic does not believe that the existence of god can be known. Instead of believing that the universe is empty of a god, or choosing to believe in god, they simply suspend judgment.

  1. Deism

Deists believe that a god does exist. For this person, god is the creator and is often supreme, but is not involved in our world today. As such he can not be known on a personal level. We must differentiate between the agnostic position that the existence of god is unknowable. A deist believes you can know the existence of god, just not god himself. Sometimes this belief is called theism.

  1. Pantheism

The etymology of this word is enlightening as well. The Greek prefix “pan” means all. (Consider panoramic or panacea.) This group accepts all as god, or that “God is everything”. The universe and god are synonymous.

  1. Polytheism

With “poly” meaning many it isn’t hard to remember that a polytheist believes in many gods. Many of the nations that Israel warred with in the Old Testament were polytheistic, as their many idols attested to.

  1. Humanism.

Though some may doubt that humanism can rightly be called a religion, this can no longer be doubted in our society. In Torcaso v. Watkins the Supreme Court affirmed that secular humanism is a religion. Humanism centrally believe that man is his own god.

  1. Monotheism

Not exclusive to Christianity, monotheists believe that there is only one god. God here not only created, but sustains the universe. Secularists often consider monotheism as a later development that evolved out of earlier polytheistic systems. Such assumptions are being challenged by modern scholarship. Dr. Boa observes, “Anthropologists have recently noted that variant religions do not “evolve” within a culture. Monotheism does not grow out of polytheism, as once thought, but such a change is imported from the outside.”[2]

Introduction to Eastern Religions

One of the main tenants of eastern religions is their belief in the unity of all reality. Because of this, eastern religions could generally be called monistic.[3]

History of Hinduism

Hinduism, the third largest religion in the world, is looked at by many scholars as the oldest religion in the world. In the second millennia BC several large tribes of Aryans from the European area began migrating into northern India, imposing their vedic religion as they came.[4] As these new demographic groups began learning from and mingling with the people of the land, new ideas about the spiritual world and life itself began to develop.

By far, the most famous and oldest group of manuscripts from this era are called the Rig-Veda.[5] These Indo-Aryan hymns form an early glimpse into the development of Hindusim. Some of the gods in the Rig Veda (sometimes “Rigveda”) can be recognized from other religions, including the Old Testament Hitties. Another example would be the mother god for earth of the Greeks (Gaia Mater).