Lesson Four: Airmanship, Human Factors, and Radio

  • Don’t read:
  • Anything from “Human Factors” and “Airmanship” that I didn’t cover
  • From Radio: Data Link Communications, Satellite/VHF Data Link. Focus on what I’ve covered, although it would be good to read through the sections I didn’t cover as well, for general reference.
  • Wake Turbulence (Airmanship chapter)
  • Caused by induced drag, as previously mentioned in ToF
  • Intensity of vortices proportional to weight and inversely proportional to wing span and speed of plane
  • Slow, heavy, clean configuration, at high AoA (typically during T/O and landing)
  • Air density influences vortex strength; vortices expected to be more severe in cold air.
  • **Vortices also generated by rotary-wing aircraft (helicopters)
  • Potentially even more dangerous than fixed-wing vortices since helicopter’s lower speeds produce more wakes
  • Aircraft that fly into vortex tend to roll with vortex
  • If wing span/ailerons extend BEYOND the diameter of the vortex, airplane may be able to counter-roll; otherwise, if you have short wingspan and are light, you’re in trouble.
  • Vortices advect with wind (can move to the side with cross-winds)
  • Generation starts with rotation (i.e. nose-up off runway) and is max at lift-off when full weight of airplane is sustained by lift and the speed is slow
  • Within 2 minutes, vortices level off about 1000’ below aircraft’s flight path
  • Generation ends when airplane touches down.
  • Vortices can last for 5 minutes; turbulence may break them up sooner.
  • Vortex field covers an area about 2 wing spans in width and 1 wing span in depth
  • Avoidance
  • Vortices have a downwards and outwards movement, and can be advected to the side by wind
  • You must be wary of wind conditions
  • Avoid crossing behind and less than 1000’ below the flight path of a large plane or helicopter while in the air
  • During T/O, plan to be airborne BEFORE the rotation point of the previous large airplane.
  • During landing, plan to touch town BEYOND the point that the previous large airplane touched down; make sure your approach path is above that of the previous plane.
  • Hypoxia (Human Factors)
  • Lack of oxygen
  • General rule: bring oxygen when flying above 10000’ ASL during the day and 5000’ ASL during the night
  • By CARs: Aircraft should not be operated for more than 30 min. between 10000’ and 13000’ or at all above 13000’ without oxygen readily available for each crew member.
  • Hypoxic Hypoxia
  • Hypoxia induced by decreased air density.
  • Stagnant Hypoxia
  • Caused by temporary displacement of blood in the head, due to positive G’s.
  • Deterioration in vision, grey-out, black-out, then loss of consciousness.
  • Anaemic Hypoxia
  • Caused by over-abundance of CO (carbon monoxide) in the haemoglobin (blood)
  • Exhaust fumes in the cockpit
  • Histotonic Hypoxia
  • Chemical poisoning and high blood alcohol
  • Alcohol (Human Factors)
  • Obviously a bad idea (symptoms associated with alcohol need little explanation)
  • Takes 3 hours for the effects of 1 oz. of alcohol to wear off
  • Can cause histotonic hypoxia
  • **By law: “No alcohol in the system when you fly.” CARs requires at least 8 hours after the consumption of alcohol and piloting an airplane. General rule: Allow 24 hours between last drink and T/O and 48 hours after heavy drinking  reason: hangovers.
  • Radio
  • Wavelength: distance from one wave-crest to the next.
  • Period/Cycle: time it takes between one crest passing a certain point till the next crest
  • Frequency = 1/period = (speed of light) / (wavelength)
  • Read the entire section on Radio Bands
  • Very high frequencies (VHF) expressed in megahertz (MHz)
  • 1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz
  • VHF lies between 30 MHz and 300 MHz, used most often for civilian aviation.
  • 108.00 MHz through 117.95 MHz used for radio nav.
  • 118.00 through 136.00 MHz used for civilian voice communcations
  • **ICAO emergency frequency: 121.50 MHz
  • **Uncontrolled/Enroute frequency: 126.70 MHz (for use in making position reports and general comms with flight service stations)
  • Single and Double Channel Communication
  • Radio equipment on airplanes is capable of transmitting and receiving
  • Single channel simplexmeans you can only communicate in one direction at a time, transmitting and receiving on the same radio frequency.
  • Double simplex means being able to transmit on one frequency and receiving on another, but not at the same time.
  • Double channel duplex means transmitting on one channel frequency and receiving on another frequency at the same time.
  • Radio Signals
  • Ground wavesfollow surface of earth. They tend to travel in straight lines, but because of diffraction (the bending of waves), they can travel around obstacles as well. Repeated bending due to obstacles allows ground waves to follow Earth’s curvature.
  • As a wave comes into contact with the ground, friction causes it to lose its energy in a process called surface attenuation.
  • Radio waves travel greater distance over water than land.
  • VLF, VHF and UHF frequencies not affected very much by attenuation. VHF and UHF do not experience diffraction. HF gets the most affected by attenuation.
  • Sky waves travel into the atmosphere and are reflected back to earth by the ionosphere.
  • Reflection of sky waves from upper atmosphere means radio signals with lower frequencies can be heard at much greater distances than would be expected from ground waves.
  • Applies to HF and below.
  • Between the point where ground waves end and reflected waves strike the earth, there is a skip zone.
  • Static can be an issue for lower frequencies.
  • VHF radio waves don’t bounce between ionosphere and Earth. They operate on line-of-sight.
  • The greater the altitude to airplane flies, the greater the distance at which it will be able to receive VHF signals.
  • Prevents radio stations with similar frequencies from interfering with each other, if they’re both “below the horizon”
  • VHF isn’t affected much by atmospheric and precipitation static; makes for easy talking.
  • Precipitation Static
  • Flying in cloud or precipitation will accumulate electric charges on the plane. Once charges accumulate enough, they’ll discharge into the surrounding air, results in static for the radio systems.
  • Frequently occurs when flying in or near thunderstorms.
  • Read entire section on Communication Equipment.
  • Radio Communication Facilities (brief overview only of the facilities; a lot of information here is important when you’re flying, but likely won’t be tested heavily)
  • Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
  • Provides broadcasts to pilots and aviation personnel near or at an airport that are of non-control nature.
  • Weather conditions, runways in use, NOTAMS affecting the airport, etc.
  • Pre-recorded messages by tower personnel
  • Identified by a phonetic alphabet based on when they’re issued during the day (first ATIS of the day called Alfa, next one called Bravo, etc.)
  • Control Tower (ATC)
  • Provides traffic control at an airport, for the safe movement of aircraft in the air.
  • Responsible for T/Os, landings, management of VFR traffic within the airspace controlled by the airport.
  • Radio frequency of the Tower and other information found in the Canada Flight Supplement (CFS)
  • Ground Control
  • Typically found at most airports, especially larger ones with more traffic.
  • Management of all ground movement of air traffic prior to T/O and after landing and other vehicles that are being driven on the airport grounds.
  • Provides taxiing instructions and other services (closing/opening flight plans, information on services and facilities, etc.)
  • Flight Service Stations (FSS)
  • Established at some aerodromes across the country.
  • Provides service 24 hrs a day
  • Comms with aircraft conducted on standard set of frequencies, like emergency and enroute
  • Pilots are able to obtain and pass information with FSSs, including position reports and emergencies
  • Can also relay messages/clearances from/to ATCs when the tower can’t come into contact with the pilot
  • Can provide weather information
  • Can relay flight plans to ATC
  • Manages uncontrolled airports with mandatory frequencies
  • Broadcast flight safety information
  • Can handle PIREPs (pilot reports)
  • Flight Information Centres (FIC)
  • 9 FICs in Canada provide pilots with access to higher quality flight information
  • Closest one to us is Kamloops FIC
  • 1-866-WX-BRIEF
  • Provide 24 hrs/day flight planning and weather briefing services
  • Kiosks at some local airports offer access to nearest FIC
  • Can conduct one long flight by dealing with one FIC than multiple FSS
  • Can close flight plans with the FIC by radio.
  • Flight Information Service
  • Information provided to pilots for them to make final decisions with.
  • Weather, changes in serviceability of radio navigation aids, airport conditions, etc.
  • Radiotelephone Procedure
  • Know your phonetic alphabet and numbers!
  • Operation of a radio requires a radio operator’s license in addition to a valid pilot’s license
  • Predominantly in English.
  • Aircraft Call Signs
  • Expressed in phonetic alphabets.
  • First letter of the call sign not spoken.
  • e.g. CV Chui’s solo plane: C-GCYG  Golf Charlie Yankee Golf on first naming, after which just Charlie Yankee Golf
  • Time
  • Uses 24-hr time based on UTC/Zulu time
  • Day starts at 0000Z, ends at 2359Z
  • Altitudes and Headings
  • Given in thousands and hundreds of feet ASL
  • Headings given in groups of three digits, in degrees magnetic in the Southern Domestic Airspace or in degrees true in the Northern Domestic Airspace
  • Frequencies
  • 121.5 MHz is One Two One Decimal Five Megahertz.
  • Standard Phrases
  • See book.
  • Keep in mind that it’s “Say again” and NOT “Repeat”
  • Priority of Communication
  • Distress calls (Mayday)
  • Urgency calls (Pan-Pan)
  • Flight safety communications (clearances, position reports, advisories, etc.)
  • Scheduled broadcasts
  • Unscheduled broadcasts (NOTAM, SIGMET, PIREP)
  • Other air-ground communication
  • General Call Procedures
  • Think before you talk!
  • Listen to the channel first before making a call, so you don’t interrupt anyone.
  • Call-up (you), reply (station), message (you) and acknowledgement (station) [ideal way to do it]
  • Speak at a moderate pace, with proper enunciation and pitch.
  • e.g. Requesting transit through Pitt Meadows
  • Pitt Meadows tower, this is Cessna 172 Golf Papa Papa Victor. Two-thousand feet, 1 mile northwest of Cloverdale race track. Request transit through your zone northbound towards Pitt Lake. [Over]
  • Papa Papa Victor, Pitt tower, transit through zone approved, cross midfield not below two-thousand feet.
  • Not below two-thousand feet midfield, Papa Papa Victor.
  • Communication Checks
  • Strength: 5 (Very clear)  1 (Can barely hear)
  • Readability: 5 (Perfectly readable)  1 (Unreadable)
  • Read the rest of the chapter in between here and the next note point
  • Emergency calls
  • Distress (Mayday)
  • First transmission should be made on current air-ground frequency
  • Indicates grave or imminent danger that would affect the lives of the people on board.
  • If you can’t reach anyone or it doesn’t work, you should transmit on the distress frequency (or any other available frequency)
  • Before changing frequencies, need to say which frequency you’re changing to.
  • Message should be repeated at intervals until you get a reply.
  • Distress call: MAYDAY MAYDAYMAYDAY, followed by your call sign three times
  • If you can, give position, altitude, type of aircraft, nature of emergency, souls on board, and your intentions
  • (Keep microphone pressed down for 20 sec. after transmission for direction finding bearings to be taken on you.)
  • All stations hearing distress must cease transmission on their own unless they are involved with the assistance process.
  • Once distress is over, should make a message on the transmitted frequencies stating that the distress call is over.
  • Urgency (Pan Pan)
  • First transmission should be made on current air-ground frequency.
  • Indicates an urgent situation that could affect the safety of the aircraft and the people on board.
  • Should be addressed to a specific station, OR could be directed to all stations.
  • Urgency call: PAN PAN, PAN PAN, PAN PAN, all stations, all stations, all stations, this is …
  • Stations which hear urgency should continue to listen for three minutes; if no further urgency message is heard can continue normal operations.
  • Must be cancelled when the situation has ended.
  • Can be used to indicate the necessity for immediate landing, but where immediate assistance isn’t required.
  • Safety (Security)
  • Safety call: SECURITY SECURITYSECURITY
  • Indicates a station is about to transmit a message concerning the safety of aircraft in flight