Lecture 6 – Republican and Imperial Rome

Prehistoric Italy: Around 1000 BC, the ancestors of the Romans, speakers of Italic languages, pushed down into the Italian peninsula.

Etruscans: Little is known clearly of this people, but they seem to have arisen around 800 BC to conquer and rule over many of their neighbors (including Rome). They also traded with distant lands; after 500 BC, they went into decline.

Royal Rome (753 BC? To 510 BC):

The Founding of Rome: Roman tradition held that Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus, later said to be a descendent of Prince Aeneas of Troy. The Roman traditions of the monarchy period assert 7 kings ruled during it; most historians now think this claim is likely questionable; many more kings likely ruled. However, the Gauls destroyed all of Rome's early records in 390 BC when they sacked Rome. Some time in the 6th century BC, a line of Etruscan kings became the last monarchs of Rome.

Government: Rome's kings had the power of imperium—the ability to issue commands and have them enforced through fines, physical punishment, or even death. However, Kings were chosen by the Senate, not hereditary, and had to be approved by the Assembly of citizens. The members of the Senate served for life, providing counsel to the king and acting as the voice of the nobility. The curiate assembly was made up of all citizens, divided into groups; each group voted on an issue; the majority vote in the group determined that group's vote in the assembly. It took approval by a majority of votes to then approve or deny measures brought before it.

Family: The center of Roman life was the family unit. Men ruled the household; women managed its affairs. A father could kill or sell his children into slavery, but not his wife, who he could only divorce for serious offenses.

Clientage: Most people were enmeshed in a network of client-patron relationships in which the patron aided his clients with economic and legal problems and provided physical protection against violence, while the client supported the patron politically, worked his land, and fought for him when necessary. Some patrons were clients to men yet more powerful. Thus, roman society was a web of patronage networks. Clientage was hereditary, though not impossible to change.

Patrician and Plebian: The wealthy Patrician (noble) class held the top power in society, for only Patricians could hold office, conduct religious ceremonies, or sit in the Senate. Patricians only married Patricians. The Plebians were excluded from power, though some became very wealthy through trade and artisanship; most were poor farmers and minor artisans, however.

The Roman Republic (510 BC - ?)

End Point: As will be seen, historians dispute when exactly the Republic ends; it seems to gradually shade into Empire. The first century BC or AD contains the usual suspects when historians argue this.

Origins: In 510 BC, the noble families of Rome overthrew the Roman monarchy, supposedly due to misbehavior by the last King, Tarquinius Superbus, who ruled by violence and whose son was said to have raped a patrician woman, Lucretia.

Constitution:

Consuls: The Consuls, two officials elected at the same time for one year terms, assumed the powers of the kingship, though over time, the Romans removed some powers to other officials. Their power of Imperium was only unrestrained with regard to its use in the army in the field; within Rome, citizens could appeal to the assembly. Futher, each Consul could veto each other's actions and you only served once, then joined the Senate. In a crisis, the Consuls could appoint a Dictator for 6 months, which held unrestricted Imperium. This was for crises.

Other Officials: Quaestors ran the financial affairs of the state. Proconsul was an office used to extend a consul's office for military affairs only, so he could serve in the field over a year. Praetors served judicial functions, as generals, and later as governors. The Censors identified who was a citizen and to what group they belonged in the Centuriate Assembly. They were the ones who conducted the yearly census. They later gained the power to ban people from the Senate for moral reasons.

Senate and Assembly: The Senate, because it endured and was small enough to act effectively, largely took over the direction of foreign and domestic affairs. The Centuriate Assembly was essentially the Roman army of citizen-soldiers acting as a legislature. It was organized into centuries—groups of a hundred men who could afford to buy and use military gear. The assembly was divided into classes according to wealth as well, according to what gear you had.

Struggle of the Orders: In the 5th - 3rd century BC, the Plebians and Patricians struggled for control of the Republic. The Plebians won the right to elect ten Tribunes in a plebian tribal assembly. The Tribunes could veto any act of a magistrate or any bill proposed in a Roman assembly or the Senate. In 367 BC, one Consul seat was opened to the Plebians. In 287 BC, the Plebians secured a law which made the plebian assembly's decisions binding on all Romans without needing Senate approval. The nobiles—a collection of wealthy patrician and plebian families now took control of the Senate and the state. (Some Patricians had sunk into poverty by now.)

Conquest of Italy:

The Latin League, the Gauls, and the Latin War: In 493 BC, the Romans joined the Latin League, an alliance of local states. Over time, the Romans conquered much of central Italy in a series of wars interrupted by the Gauls sacking Rome in 390 BC, which destroyed much of the evidence of Rome's past. Despite this defeat, Rome bounced back, defeating more of its neighbors and falling out with the Latin League, which it defeated and assimilated after the Latin War (343 BC—338 BC).

Roman Conquests: Rome was generous to those it defeated, offering some citizenship and others municipal status (local self-government). Roman's citizen soldiers were rewarded by the grant of lands in conquered territories, which they colonized. Colonists remained Roman citizens and were linked by road networks to Rome. Local religion and culture was left unmolested. Loyal allies could eventually gain Roman citizenship.

Southern Italy: Rome now turned its eyes south towards the Greek colonies in Southern Italy. King Pyrrhus of Epirus tried to save these cities from Rome in the early 3rd century BC, but his three victories over Rome were so bloody he had to go home. (Source of the concept of 'Pyrric Victory').

Carthage and Sicily: For centuries, the Phoenician colony of Carthage, located in modern Tunisia, had dominated the western Mediterranean. It was currently involved in power struggles with the Greek colonies of Sicily, Sardinia, and Southern Italy. Roman involvement in these politics led to the first of three wars for control of the Western Mediterranean.

Carthage: Like Rome, Carthage was an oligarchic republic. Founded in 814 BC by Phoenician colonists, as an outpost for Phoenician trade. Over time, it became independent as its home city, Tyre, fell to empire after empire of the mainland, eventually becoming too weak to rule Carthage. By the beginning of the 5th century BC, Carthage had become the commercial center of the West Mediterranean region, a position it retained until overthrown by the Roman Republic. The city had conquered most of the old Phoenician colonies e.g. Hadrumetum, Utica and Kerkouane, subjugated the Libyan tribes (with the Numidian and Mauretanian kingdoms remaining more or less independent), and taken control of the entire North African coast from modern Morocco to the borders of Egypt (not including the Cyrenaica, which was eventually incorporated into Hellenistic Egypt). Its influence had also extended into the Mediterranean, taking control over Sardinia, Malta, the Balearic Islands and the western half of Sicily, where coastal fortresses such as Motya or Lilybaeum secured its possessions. Important colonies had also been established on the Iberian peninsula.

Like Rome, Carthage was ruled by two Suffets, chosen by the oligarchic council, whose power was checked by a popular assembly. Unlike Rome, it didn't rely on citizen soldiers, but on a combination of mercenaries, professional soldiers, forces from subject peoples, and the recruitment of local natives around its colonies.

The First Punic War (264-241 BC): Similar in many ways to the Peloponesian war: The Romans were unstoppable on land; the Carthiginians at sea. It was largely fought in and around Sicily. The Romans finally turned the tide by developing ships with boarding bridges, allowing them to use their legionairres at sea to attack Carthaginian ships. Carthage paid an indemmity and gave up its lands in Sicily.

Spain: Between wars, Carthage now enhanced its colonies in Spain to try to raise money to be ready for the next war.

The Second Punic War (218-202 BC): The city of Saguntum allied itself with Rome against Carthage in Spain, then stirred up trouble for Carthage. Carthiginian general Hannibal, raised by his father to hate Rome, moved against Saguntum and took it, then when Rome declared war, he took a force across the mountains to Gaul, then across the Alps to invade Italy from the north. Between 218 and 216 BC, Hannibal defeated the Romans in three battles, each worse for Rome than the one before. This culminated in Cannae, where in 216 BC, Hannibal defeated 80-90,000 men with a force of only 40,000 men, killing or capturing some 60-70,000 Romans. Despite the victory, however, Hannibal was unable to get Rome's allies to defect or to capture Roman cities. In 215 BC, King Philip V of Macedon allied with Hannibal, and from 215-205 BC, Hannibal was able to roam Italy at will, but he was unable to break Rome. The turning of the war was the appointment of Publius Cornelius Scipio to command a force sent to Spain, where he conquered Carthage's colonies, causing huge financial loss to Carthage. In 204 BC he invaded Carthage's African lands, forcing Hannibal to go home. In 202 BC, he crushed Hannibal at Zama and Carthage surrendered, losing most of its lands.

The Province System: Rome's new conquests became provinces to be administered; no offers of citizenship were extended to Spain, Corsica, Sardinia, or Italy. Instead, they were put under the command of governors who possessed the Imperium within their lands without the limits which restricted Consuls and other magistrates. Provinces paid tribute through a system of tax-farming (privatized tax collection). Tax farmers owed a fixed amount to the central government each year, but could collect more than was due to the government. And they did, as they took the job to MAKE MONEY FAST. End result—massive corruption.

The Conquest of the Hellenistic World:

Philip V: Philip V of Macedon was crushed by the Romans in 197 BC.

Antiochus III: This king of the Seleucid dynasty now chose to challenge Rome. They crushed him at Magnesia in 189 BC and turned Greece and Asia Minor into protectorates.

Other Wars: Perseus, son of Philip V tried to revolt and was crushed. The conservative censor Cato pushed crusel punishment for anti-Roman factions and revolts, including the 146 BC destruction of Corinth. In the same year, Rome sacked Carthage, destroying it. Rome made so much money, it abolished property taxes on citizens.

Greek Influence on the Early Roman Republic

Greek Influence: The conquest of Greece brought many Greek scholars, teachers, engineers, slaves, etc, to Rome, along with sophisticated Hellenistic culture.

Religion: Rome had a traditional pantheon of the Gods, some of whom were connected to planets. They now tended to merge Greek Mythology with their own by identifying Gods as equivalent—Jupiter and Zeus, Pluto and Hades, Neptune and Poseidon, Juno and Hera, etc. The cults of Cybele the Great Mother goddess and Dionysius/Bacchus were introduced from the east in the third century BC.

Education: Education was a family responsibility, handled by tutors who were often slaves. Roman education focused on making people moral, patriotic, and conservative. Greeks added the study of philosophy, language, and literature to the Roman curricula—'Humanitas'. Fluency in Greek was increasingly expected of anyone with pretensions to social status. Some Romans, like Cicero, even travelled to Greece to study.

Roman Imperialism:

Effects of War: The Second Punic war dispossessed many farmers and large land holders gobbled up small forms to form plantations—latifundia. They staffed the land with war captive slaves. Meanwhile, the old small farmers ended up as city labor or as tenant farmers. The rich got richer and the poor poorer. The result was conflict which threatened the Republic

The Gracchi: In the mid-second century BC, Tiberius Gracchus (168-133 BC) set out to address this conflict. In 133 BC he became tribune on a platform of land reform. However, another tribune vetoed his plans when he put them to the tribal assembly. Tiberius convinced the assembly to fire said tribune and passed a second bill. But his success undermined the rule of law in Rome. Feeling himself in danger, he planned to illegally run for a second term as tribune. A mob of senators and their followers now killed him, having no other recourse.

The Populares: New politicians arose like Tiberius who based their power on an appeal to the people and the assemblies, not on influence among the wealthy. The Populares were opposed by the Optimates, who backed the Senate's traditional power.

Gaius Gracchus (159-121 BC): The tribunate of Gaius Gracchus, brother of Tiberius, was marked by solid support for him from now re-electable tribunes. Thus the Senate could not easily oppose him. Gaius set up colonies for veterans and passing a law stabilizing grain prices. He also won the support of the equestrians, wealthy men who supplied goods and services to Rome and helped run its provinces. (This class got its name from being cavalrymen in the early Republic due to affording their own horses.) Gaius bribed them with the right to collect taxes in the Roman province of Asia in 129 BC. He fell from power after he tried to extend citizenship to Rome's Italian allies. In 121 BC, he lost his tribuneship and was killed in mob action with 3,000 of his followers.

Marius and Sulla: Gaius Marius (157-86 BC) was chosen Consul in 107 BC to fight Jugurtha, king of Numidia (in NW Africa). He eliminated property qualifications for the army, opening it to any and all volunteers—mostly dispossed farmers and urban poor—who served for long terms. This began turning the army from citizen-soldiers into professionals loyal mainly to their generals. This now enabled generals to challenge the Senate. However, it also made it much easier to keep armies in the field for long term wars.

Marius now crushed Jugurtha, but a guerilla war dragged on until his subordinate, Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC), stepped in and captured Jugurtha. Marius stole the credit and they fell out.

War Against the Italian Allies (The Social War): 90-88 BC. Rome's Italian allies now revolted against Rome, seeking equality. Rome gave in and granted them citizenship and local autonomy for their municipalities.

Sulla's Dictatorship: Sulla was elected Consul for 88 BC and used his power to crush Marius and his followers. He now became dictator, and in theory, restored the traditional order and the power of the Senate. But in actuality, he showed that anyone with an army could not take over Rome.

Fall of the Republic

Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar: In 70 BC, Marcus Licinius Crassus (115-53 BC) and Gnaeus Pompey (106-48 BC) were elected Consul; they repealled most of Sulla's reforms. Pompey then fought a campaign to wipe out the Mediterranean pirates and returned in 62 BC as a hugely popular figure. Crassus feared his rising power and allied himself to Gaius Julius Caesar(100-44 BC).

The First Triumvirate: To the surprise of all, Pompey disbanded his army and staged no coup. He wanted a grant of land for his men, but the Senate refused, causing him to ally with Crassus and Caesar.

Rise of Caesar: Elected consul in 59 BC, Caesar now carried out the Triumvirate's plans. He then secured the governorship of Gaul and spent 58-50 BC in Gaul, conquering it in a series of wars made famous by his own historical account of it, which would later become a major part of latin studies: Commentaries of the Gallic War. He conquered Gaul so thoroughly, it remained loyal to Rome until the 5th century AD. In his absence, Crassus died fighting the Parthians at Carrhae in 53 BC. Pompey now allied with the Senate against him.

The Rubicon: At the end of his ten years as governor, the law required Caesar lay down his Imperium powers as governor and go home to Rome. Instead, he marched his legions to the Rubicon, southern border of Gaul, and crossed the river with them to attack Rome. From 49-45 BC, he fought Pompey and other challengers, crushing them all and emerging triumphant.