Later Middle Ages
Later Middle Ages
Medieval Life
idea and role of universal Church
feudal and monastic institutions
town life and guilds
Scholasticism
Gothic architecture
style: hierarchy, other-worldliness, focus on God, sense of stasis
Challenges
dynastic conflict--changing idea of kingship (v. Vatican)
Golden Bull (1356)--Pope blocked out of HRE choice
Hundred Years' War (1337-1452)--Eng. claim on Fr. throne
style of warfare
impact on knighthood
War of the Roses (1455-85)
divided Church
Babylonian captivity (1309-77)
Great Schism (1378-1415)
Jan Hus--burned at stake in 1415
conciliar movement
intellectual
William of Ockham--govt. secular, criticize Aristotle/reason
John Wycliffe--future Reformation challenges
Black Death/famine
began in 1346
killed 33-50% of Europe's population
psychological and demographic impact
social life
jacquerie
Ciompi Revolt (1378)
A New Spirit
more focus on individual
more focus on here-and-now
vernacular literature--realism, national setting
less faith in instit. Church, more mysticism
Result: Strain on existing institutions, ripe for social/intellectual change
The Renaissance
Rebirth of classical past
a strong contrast with the Middle Ages?
Petrarch
style: secularism, virtu, humanism, civic virtue
Causes
new focus on this world after 14th century
wealth/indep. of Italian city-states (location)
new ideas/text--from Byzantine Empire (falling to Ottomans)
urban life--culture
Renaissance Society
25% in towns, 10% elsewhere (econ. center, surr. countryside)
cities ruled by wealthy elites--bankers, merchants, etc. (Medici, Sforza)
luxury goods
stronger sense of community/cohesion (b/c of relative prosperity)
family--patriarchal, extended (w/servants), women gain only in educ.
Ideals
humanists--liberal arts (grammar, rhetoric, history, moral phil.)
Petrarch--"the father of humanism"
Castiglione
Valla--philology
Bruni--Florentine Academy
Machiavelli--circumstances of his writing
The Prince (1513)
civic virtue (condotierre)
Art
style and subjects--linear, perspective, symmetry, shading, individuals
architecture--Brunulleschi (dome), Alberti
painting/sculpture
Massaccio (Expulsion of Adam and Eve)
Botticelli (Spring, Venus)
da Vinci/Michelangelo (Renaissance Men)
role of Church--caveat to secularism
Politics
contests for local supremacy--Milan, Florence, Venice, Naples, Papal States
stability through seigneurs, local elites (Council of Ten), Medici
Peace of Lodi (1454)
Venice--Great Council, strongest through navy/trade
fall of Italian states--rise of Ottomans (affects trade), voyages of exploration, in middle of dynastic rivalries
Wars of Italy (1494-1529)
sack of Rome (1527)
result: Renaissance spreads but conditions no longer favor Italy, center of Europe shifts to North and West (Spain, G.B., Low Countries)
European Exploration and Empire/New Monarchs
impact: changed balance of power and intellectual universe
Motives--God, gold, and glory
spices of Asia
technological innovations, $ from banking
Renaissance mentality
Explorers
Prince Henry the Navigator
Portugal--spices and slaves (short-lived empire)
Columbus sails for newly-united Spain
Balboa, Magellan
conquistadores--Cortes, Pizarro (types of individuals)
type of control/impact on indigenous peoples/disease
Impact--reassess views of themselves
Europe in 1500 (diversity of forms/states in need of unity)
East--loose Scand., Mongol/Ottomans, Russia, Poland-Lithuania
Central--HRE
West--Spain (reconquista), G.B., France
New Monarchs
difficulties--strong nobles, cult./reg'l diversity, transport, dynastic conflicts, other powers (Church, etc.)
changes in warfare
Russia--gained at expense of Mongols
Ivan III--rewards for boyars/army, Orthodox Church
Ivan IV--punished/moved boyars, loyalty of army, peasants to serfs
Poland declines--weak central ruler
G.B.
War of Roses depletes nobles
Henry VIII-royal domains (taxes), depts. of state, coerce/kill nobles
Privy Council and Parliament increased (Reformation)
France
indep. arist. and provincialism
Louis XI--marriages, alliances, consumption taxes, nat'l army
Spain
regional diversity (Aragon/Castile)
reconquista/Inquisition--nationalism
Charles V--bureau. courts (often absent)
Dynastic Struggles
military technology and continuing chivalry
personal rivalries (Henry VIII, Francis I, Charles V)
Valois v. Habsburg (often in Italy)--vie for HRE title
Pavia (1525), Francis captured, turns tables w/Henry/Suleiman
Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis
overall trend: growing power of state, aided by econ. advances
The Reformation
Importance: challenged the powerful institutional role of Catholic Church, divided Europe religiously, more individualism, and led to political conflict
The Causes--(influenced by political develop./econ. motives)
intellectual ferment--printing press (1518-25--1/3 of books by Luther)
Christian humanism--spirit of reform through education, new Bibles
NOTE: diff. w/Italian humanism
Sir Thomas More (later beheaded)--Utopia
Erasmus--satirized Church abuses, called for more indiv. belief
Cisneros--Polyglot Bible--"saved" Spain from Reformation
abuses of Church--nepotism, simony, pluralism, indulgences
Renaissance popes (Julius II, Alex. VI)
Fred. III "the Wise" and Johann Tetzel
Lutheran Reformation
95 Theses--for discussion, individual salvation
sola fide, sola scriptura, sola gratia
equality of all believers, challenge power of Pope/councils
Diet of Worms (1521)
Address to Christian Nobility (1520)--appeal to German nationalism
Charles V's problems
converts from elites (resentment of Rome)
anticlericalism among burghers
converts--often for national/economic reasons
social and political conservatism
where: Germany, Scandinavia
Other Protestant reformers
Zwingli (Swiss)--city/Church united, radically v. ritual/material
Calvinism--Institutes of Christ. Relig. (1536)--predest., indep. congreg.
where: Low Countries, Britain, France
English Reformation
Act of Supremacy (1534)
Edward VI (reforms, comp. w/ Cath), Mary (repression), Eliz. I
Anabaptists--radicals, denied secular authority, only true believers
where: Germany, Bohemia, Hungary
Catholic Reformation
summary: reform abuses, renewed spirituality, emphasize again doctrines, fight back against Prot.
New Piety--indiv. spirituality, Teresa of Avila (Carmelites)
Loyola and the Jesuits (missionaries)
Council of Trent (1545-63)--dominated by Pope's Ital. (refused comp. w/HRE)
abolished indulgence abuses
reaffirm special mark of clergy
update liturgy
scriptural and apostolic tradition
index and Inquisition
where: France, Italy, Ireland, E. Europe (Poland, Hungary, Austria)
Beginning of Warfare
Charles V--trying to reunite empire v. Ottoman, France, German Prots.
1555--Peace of Augsburg
Religious Warfare
main focus: development of secular authority of state, division of Europe into distinct nation-states (Treaty of Westphalia--1648)
Nature
new technology, admin., organization
depth of hatred--fear of neighbors, "pollution"
French Wars of Religion
Calvinist inroads (10% by 1560--esp. among well-to-do)
Henry II death (1559)
Catherine de Medici--regent
dynastic instability
Guises v. Bourbons
Charles X sister to marry Henry of Navarre (Prot)
St. Bartholomew Day's Massacre
politiques and Catholic League
War of Three Henrys (1588-89 Guise and Henry III assass.)
settlement--Henry IV to Cath., Edict of Nantes (1598)
Spain's War with Netherlands
Philip II--leader of European Cath.
war v. Ottomans (Lepanto--1571)
Spanish Armada
Burgundian inheritance
social/econ. situation of provinces
force Cath.----passive resistance (William of Orange)
Revolt
1566--iconoclasm
Duke of Alba (Council of Blood)
taxes high, repression--more opp. even among Cath.
settlment
Pacification of Ghent (1576)--cede auth. to States-General
Twelve Years' Truce (1609)--ack. indep. of United Provinces
Eastern Europe
Poland-Lithuania--instability and powerful nobility
war w/ Russia going thru Time of Troubles
Sweden--rise of int'l Prot. power
effort to control Baltic trade
Thirty Years War--type of war, impact on Germany, not just Cath. v. Prot.
Bohemian revolt--effort to get Ferd. II as Emperor
Defenstration of Prague (1618)
White Mountain (1620)--defeat Fred. V and get Bohemia Cath.
fear of Catholic Habsburgs--G.B., Holland, Germans, Denmark join
Swedish intervene w/effort to convert Lutherans
Magdeburg sacking (1631)--unite Protestant behing Gust. Adolph.
died at Lutzen
Spain v. France
Treaty of Westphalia (1648)
reaffirm Augsburg--HRE just a name
Dutch independent
state system
16th Century Social History
theme: hierarchy, econ./demographic changes affect these
Economy--expansion of agriculture, increase in pop., Price Revolution
rural
90% of pop.
subsistence farming--often famines, instability
three-crop rotation
peasants leased land, owned by lord/seigneur, common land
robot, corvee
towns
guilds--structure of work
focus on food
merchants, artisans
most unskilled
domestic service
changes
80 to 105 M in pop.
at first---prod., urban, consumption up
then strain
Price Revolution
wages not keeping up (guilds more strict)
landless laborers among wealthy peasants
result: subsistence crisis, social stratification
Social Life--focus on hierarchy, though econ. challenged
Great Chain of Being, Body Politic
nobles (about 2-3%)--tax exempt., pol. office, army
bourg., skilled (about 10%)--challenged above
townspeople/peasants--guilds, land, citizenship to figure status
Social Change
bourg./prof. enter office, buy status
poverty taxes local charities
Peasant Revolts
literate leaders
protest gaming rights/enclosures
"Twelve Articles of Swabian Peasants" (1525)--Luther condemned
Private Life--family and community provide continuity
Family
nuclear
marriage age
patriarchical
women control domestic scene, men public
community
lord, priest give continuity
social customs, festivals--saints, "world turned upside down"
popular beliefs
magic
witchcraft--social change, Reformation, superstition, lack of science
The Royal State
reason: to provide security/order, promote interests of state, needs of warfare
NOTE: compare French and British evolution of absolute monarchy
Divine Right--Bishop Bousset/Jean Bodin, organic view, "one king, faith, law"
Efforts at Centralization
Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIII
Spain--Count-Duke Olivares and Philip IV but failed
econ. weak--taxes, inflation, emigration
focus on relig. zeal--upper class crusaders/priests
disunity (Moors, Moriscos, conversos)--persecution
rebellions
Stuarts--diff. in taxing
methods: courts, intendants, taxes, selling offices,
Opposition/Crisis
Causes--taxes, pop. pressures, war, bad harvests, state regulation
right to resist
Hugeunot thinkers--right to resist civil auth. if unjust
Fronde
England
James I (1603-25)--financial diff.
Puritan demands--get rid of Cath, epispocacy
Charles I (1625-49)
new prayer book in Scotland (1637)
ship money
Bishop Laud
Long Parliament (no funds to fight invading Scots)
Civil War (1642-49)
military forces more radical take over
try king and execute in 1649
Commonwealth
Rump Parliament and Council of State
Stuart Restoration--toleration, Parl. role
Glorious Revolution (1688)
Locke (Second Treatise) and Hobbes (Leviathan)
Eastern Europe
Prussia
Fred. Will--Great Elector (1640-88)
excise taxes, armies, bureau--united scattered states
focus is army
Peter I/Russia
the man
western tour/ideas
conscription, factories, St. Petersburg
expansion (v. Poles, Swedes)
Louis XIV (1661-1715)--Versailles (the symbol)
Colbert as finance minister
Louvois--army of 400,000
intendents, bureau.
failures--persecution of Hug. (revoke Nantes), war
Culture--Baroque (ornate, elegant, structured, grand)
Scientific and Commercial Revolutions
theme: challenge religion, augment state power, Europe controlling world
New Science
Aristotle's view
Copernicus (1473-1543)--heliocentric
Brahe (1546-1601)--data to prove
Kepler (1571-1630)--laws of planetary motion
Galileo (1564-1642)--observation, gravity, recantation
Scientific Method
empirical, reason, inductive, deductive
Descartes--mind and matter, Christian skeptic, deductive, math
Robert Boyle--atomic theory
William Harvey--dissection, circulation
Leuwenhoek--microscope
Newton (1642-1727)--laws of motion, mechanics, calculus
Francis Bacon--empirical
scientific societies--Royal Academy of London
Trade
Dutch
Constit. state
econ. wealth--flyboats, location, tolerance
Bank of Amsterdam
banks--role in exchange and provide capital (Bank of England--1694)
technology, practices--bills of exchange, acct., joint-stock
merchants and profit
triangular trade
consumption
spice trade (Dutch East Indies)
India--Great Britain (calicoes, spices, tea)
sugar
change in diet
luxuries and art (Rembrandt, etc.)
Mercantilism
the theory--zero-sum, gold, colonies
practice
tariffs
regulation (Navigation Acts)
monopolies (Dutch East India, British East India, etc.)
Wars
Britain-Dutch naval wars
over Cromwell's Navigation Act
1652-54, 1665-67 (take N.Y.--anyone want it back?), 1672-74
France gangs up (open dikes)--Treaty of Nijmegen
Louis XIV
balance of power
desire for Burgundian lands
Nine Years War--seize Cologne
Grand Alliance--GB, Dutch, Germans
Treaty of Ryswick
Spanish Succession (1701-14)
v. Leopold I of Austria
Utrecht (1714)--Sp. terr. in Italy/Neth to Aust.
France loses gains, G.B. advances in North Amer.
Seven Years War (1756-63)--G.B. gains N. Amer.
New European Powers and War
Motif: War, War, War, and power of state to maintain security
powers on way up: G.B., Prussia, Russia
powers on way down: Spain, Dutch, Poland
holding own: France, Austria
Russia (Westernization)
Peter the Great
census/poll tax
Table of Ranks (1722)--based on merit
colleges of military science/liberal arts
advances in industry, peasantry still poor
Rural Life
95% of people
high taxes
military service
enserfment under Catherine
Catherine--German who killed husband
boyars accept tsar power for exemption of state service
Charter of Nobility (1785) outlines above
District Councils--local government
Pugachev Rebellion
Prussia (Hohenzollerns)
Fred. Will I
replace mercenaries, train German officers
all males register for conscription
reform state bureaucracy
Fred. the Great
enlightened monarch
invasion of Silesia (War of Austrian Succession, 1740-48)
promote educ., abolish torture, codify law
Austria
Maria Theresa (1740-80) and Pragmatic Sanction
got Hungarian support and retained crown
centralized bureaucracy
limited feudal service
Joseph II
most enlightened
eliminate feudal obligations (overturned later)
Great Britain (prosperity and Parliament)
Constitutional balance
royal patronage
parties and minister (Walpole)
corruption and American Revolution
Seven Years War
Prussia/Austria adversaries
Diplomatic Revolution of 1756
partitions of Poland (1772, 1775, 1792)
Enlightenment and Old Regime
impact: set stage for French Revolution, social conditions produced grievances, ideas the tools/expectations/inspiration
Three Classes
Nobility
set social tone
not all wealthy
land and offices
salons--patronized Enlightenment culture
Bourgeoisie
diverse--professions, merchants, skilled workers
15% in G.B., 2% in E. Europe
envied nobles
culture
leisure, ape nobles
coffee houses, theater
literacy--magazines, newspapers, novels
family life
romantic love
idealized
view of children
limit family size
Masses--new opportunities, new challenges
rising pop.-no decline this time (120 to 180 M)--Malthus
less warfare and less disease
agriculture
warmer
new techniques--fertilizer, enclosure, livestock feed
the poor
10-15% in urban areas
lacked steady employment
wage labor, unskilled workers
charities strained
"deserving" and "undeserving" poor
workhouses, hospitals, prisons, mental institutions
popular culture
literacy--almanacs, fiction
village festivals
blood sports
taverns
Enlightenment--rationalism, secularism, individualism, reform
Voltaire sets the tone
Locke--views on education, contract theory
philosophes--Montesquieu, Hume, Condorcet, Diderot, Kant
Americans Paine and Franklin
economic--Adam Smith and invisible hand, free trade
Rousseau
nature, childhood, Social Contract, General Will
romanticism
emotion, feeling, humanitarian impulse
result: provides goals of French Revolution, analogy of dynamoes
French Revolution and Napoleon
importance: ushered in modern mass politics, framed issues for next 200 years of govt. role in econ., ideal of equality, and nationalism
Old Regime
rigid class system
failure of absolute monarchy under Louis XV, XVI
revival of aristocracy
limited econ. opportunity
Causes
social--resentment of middle/lower class at privileges
political--battle between king and arist. for power
parlements and taxation
reform ministers--Turgot, Necker, Calonne, Brienne
intellectual--philosophes, ideals of Enlightenment
Rousseau
Montesquieu
economic--financial crisis and crop failures of 1787-88
Liberal Revolution, June 1789-August 1792 (lib. nobles/upper bourg.)
Estates-General and cahiers
doubling
voting by order or head
National Assembly and Tennis Court Oath (Sieyes/Mirabeau)
Dec. of Rights of Man and Citizen (8/89)
popular political partic.
Bastille and National Guard (Lafayette)
Great Fear and destruction of feudalism (Aug. 1789)
October Days (role of women)
division within
Civil Constit. of Clergy (1790)
Constitution of 1791
econ. problems--inflation, deficits (laissez-faire)
king tries to escape
war--Declaration of Pillnetz (4/92)
Radicals, Aug. 1792-July 1794 (lower bourg., lower classes)
sans-culottes/Paris
Girondins and Jacobins--Robespierre
Tuileries--king executed, republic proclaimed
Reign of Terror--Vendee, war (levee en masse), econ. crisis
composition of those executed
Republic of Virtue--women's role, de-Christianization, calendar
Directory/Thermidor, 1794-99 (upper bourg. back in control)
dependent on military victories (rise of Napoleon)
limited suffrage, luxurious style back
Consulate, 1799-1804 (Nap. engineers coup)
Empire, 1804-15
Napoleon's personality/appraisal--enl. despot, modern dictator, rev. hero
victories--various treaties, type of warfare
mistakes
Continental System (1806)
invasion of Spain (1808)
invasion of Russia (1812)
pros: Code Napoleon, spread ideals, end feudalism
cons: plunder, national revolts, women, methods, secret police
Industrial Revolution
focus on: process, why Britain first, how other nations differ, incremental/uneven technology increase, impact on society and instit., govt. role
Agricultural Revolution
traditional farming techniques
Malthus and population pressures
rural life and household manufacture
new techniques--enclosure, fertilizer, new crops, specialization
Great Britain
advantages
resources--wood, coal, ore, rivers
island location
banking and financial backing
spirit of innovation, wealthy open to profit
flexible pol. system w/middle-class repres.
developments
coal--Newcomen engine