Italian Unification

Italian Unification

The Italian Unification was the political and social movement that agglomerated different states of theItalian peninsulainto the single state of theKingdom of Italyin the 19th century. Despite a lack of consensus on the exact dates for the beginning and end of this period, many scholars agree that the process began in 1815 with theCongress of Viennaand the end ofNapoleonicrule, and ended in 1870 with theCapture of Rome.[1][2]Some of the Italian Irredentists did not, however, join theKingdom of Italyuntil afterWorld War Iwith theTreaty of Saint-Germain. Some nationalists see theArmistice of Villa Giustias the end of unification.[3]

Two prominent radical figures in the unification movement wereGiuseppe MazziniandGiuseppe Garibaldi. The more conservative constitutional monarchic figures includedCount CavourandVictor Emmanuel II, who would later become the firstking of a united Italy. Mazzini's activity in revolutionary movements caused him to be imprisoned soon after he joined. While in prison, he concluded that Italy could— and therefore should— be unified and formulated his program for establishing a free, independent, andrepublicannation with Rome as its capital. After Mazzini's release in 1831, he went toMarseille, where he organized a new political society calledLa Giovine Italia(Young Italy). The new society, whose motto was "God and the People", sought the unification of Italy. Garibaldi, a native ofNice(then part of theKingdom of Sardinia), participated in an uprising inPiedmontin 1834, was sentenced to death, and escaped toSouth America. He spent fourteen years there, taking part in several wars, and returned to Italy in 1848.

Garibaldi distrusted the pragmatic Cavour, particularly due to Cavour's role in the French annexation ofNice, Garibaldi's birthplace. Nevertheless, he accepted the command of Victor Emmanuel. When the king enteredSessa Auruncaat the head of his army, Garibaldi willingly handed over his dictatorial power. After greeting Victor Emmanuel inTeanowith the title ofKing of Italy, Garibaldi entered Naples riding beside the king. Garibaldi then retired to the island ofCaprera, while the remaining work of unifying the peninsula was left to Victor Emmanuel.

Mazzini was discontented with the perpetuation of monarchical government, and continued to agitate for a republic. With the motto "Free from theAlpsto theAdriatic", the unification movement set its gaze on Rome and Venice. There were obstacles, however. A challenge against thePope's temporal domain was viewed with great distrust by Catholics around the world, and French troops were stationed in Rome. Victor Emmanuel was wary of the international repercussions of attacking the Papal States, and discouraged his subjects from participating in revolutionary ventures with such intentions.

Nonetheless, Garibaldi believed that the government would support him if he attacked Rome. Frustrated at inaction by the king, and bristling over perceived snubs, he came out of retirement to organize a new venture. In June 1862, he sailed from Genoa and landed again at Palermo, where he gathered volunteers for the campaign, under the sloganRoma o Morte(Rome or Death). The garrison of Messina, loyal to the king's instructions, barred their passage to the mainland. Garibaldi's force, now numbering two thousand, turned south and set sail fromCatania. Garibaldi declared that he would enter Rome as a victor or perish beneath its walls. He landed atMelitoon 14 August and marched at once into theCalabrianmountains.

Meanwhile, Victor Emmanuel sought a safer means to the acquisition of the Papal States. He negotiated the removal of the French troops from Rome through a treaty, theSeptember Convention, withNapoleon IIIin September 1864, by which the emperor agreed to withdraw his troops within two years. The pope was to expand his own army during that time so as to be self-sufficient. In December 1866, the last of the French troops departed from Rome, in spite of the efforts of the pope to retain them. By their withdrawal, Italy (excluding Venetia and Savoy) was freed from the presence of foreign soldiers.

The process of unification of the Italian people in a national State was not completed in the nineteenth century. Many Italians remained outside the borders of theKingdom of Italyand this situation created the Italianirredentism.

Italia irredenta(Unredeemed Italy) was anItaliannationalistopinion movement that emerged after Italian unification. It advocatedirredentismamong the Italian people. Irredentism is when someone advocates the recovery of territory culturally or historically related to one's nation but is now subject to a foreign government.

Bibliography

Collier, Martin (2003).Italian unification, 1820–71. Heinemann Advanced History (First ed.). Oxford: Heinemann.

Riall, Lucy (1994).The Italian Risorgimento: state, society, and national unification(First ed.). London: Routledge.

Arnaldi, Girolamo:Italy and Its Invaders.Harvard University Press, 2005.