Issues in the Sustainable Management of Protected Areas of Nepal, a Case Study from Koshi

Issues in the Sustainable Management of Protected Areas of Nepal, A case Study from Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve

Medini Bhandari,

302 Maxwell School, SyracuseUniversity, Syracuse,

NY 13210, USA,

Abstract:

The aim of this study was to examine the critical issues of in the Sustainable Management of Protected Areas of Nepal. Further I have evaluated the sustainable management of human impact and dependence in the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (KTWR), Nepal, to explore the key issues for sustainable development and to recommend appropriate strategy and programs.

Available secondary data were used to evaluate the issues in the Sustainable Management of Protected Areas of Nepal. Similar techniques were applied to examinethe impacts of human activities on the wildlife has been used in this research. Additional information was obtained from Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Babarmahal, Kathmandu, UNDP and APEC, Nepal. Human activities were described and analysed. Available data was used for this purpose. The impact of these activities on the natural environment, mainly on vegetation, was described.

Government of Nepal and various national and international throughout efforts, the research results highlight the significant problems and challenges for sustainable management of protected areas in Nepal. Further results shows that there is significant human and domestic animal impacts on the protected areas of Nepal. The level of human dependence on the natural resources is very high and people do not have alternatives to solve the problems without external support.
In most of the protected areas system management strategies that are critical for resolving the pressing problems relate to the poor economic condition of surrounding areas, the empowerment of women, the population's extreme poverty, poor breeds of cattle, crop damage by wildlife, fuelwood alternatives, lack of forest in the buffer zone, non-timber forest products, eco-tourism and the wetlands.

1. Introduction

Nepali history tells that Natural resources have been mostly using by the people in political power. Nepal’s land distribution is in their hand. Nepali people are still relying on natural resources, which is leading towards the land cover change and land desertification. Nepal is based on subsistence farming and they have to expand their farmland to the environmentally fragile and not productive for agriculture. Other environmental problems are also increasing due to the urbanization and industrialization. People are dependent with the natural resources, which has adverse impacts on flora and fauna. However, Nepal has shown its priority for the sustainable management of natural resources after the democracy in 1990.

1.2. Nepal’s Sustainable Development problem

Extreme Poverty, alarming rate of population growth, lack of developmental infrastructure (transportation, communication) illiteracy, landlocked, high terrain are key problems of sustainable development in Nepal.

There is very high dependency and pressure on natural resources mainly on forest and wetlands. People are fully dependent on forest product for firewood, building materials, fodder and grass. There is no designated grazing land in particular; therefore, people take their cattle to the forest for grazing. Subsistence farming is the basis of life, so people are fully dependent on arable land.

Other problems of sustainable management / development of Nepal are listed in the following paragraphs.

• Difference between government policy paper and actual work, there is no strong commitment from the government to sustainable development;
• Decisions always have been made without consultation of policy guidelines and experts. Country’s experts cannot force to change the government decision; decision is always driven by political benefit and motives.
• Decision always comes from capital making and lack of commitment to implementing the decentralized governance system; by principal decentralization provision is there
• There is no stakeholder participation in any level of development. Implementation is imposed like trickle down process
• Rural and local level problems are not correctly addressed
• Most of the programs are in theory and have practical base. When they implement such program they often fail to get expected result.
• No proper System of evaluation and monitoring, lack of sequence in policy and program and implementation
• No good coordination between developmental agencies, NGOs and Government agencies in different sectors and at different levels;
• Corruption no transparency and accountability from higher to lower level of key stakeholders for sustainable development

1.3 Other Issues

To manage this ecosystem in a sustainable way, it is necessary to have up-to-date information concerning the ecosystem. Socio-economic data is needed as well as biophysical data, because the human impacts related to the poverty of the population are significant. Before this research, statistics concerning the ecosystem and spatial aspects had not been collated. Managers need to integrate both spatial and temporal information concerning the ecosystem and how specific activities might have consequences for the ecosystem in the future. HMG-Nepal and various NGOs and development agencies have completed substantial descriptive and analytical research on the reserve. However, the research outputs are neither complete nor holistic and are not applicable for all the policy management decisions that need to be made for the reserve.

There is insufficient research on the habitat of wild animals in eastern Nepal as well as on the socio-economic factors.

Local people are living in the nearby areas of wildlife habitat and the human population is increasing by 3.5% annually (Bhandari, 1995). Their activities: agriculture, fuel wood collection, grass collection for domestic animals, and thatch material collection for house construction, cause major degradation of habitat and are influencing the distribution of the wildlife.

It has been observed that wild animals including wild buffaloes are dependent on the lower soft and higher elephant grass. There is extreme pressure by domestic buffaloes on the park and they are creating unnecessary competition for the other wild animals in the reserve (Bhandari, 1994, 1995).

Due to an increase in human activities resulting in degradation of forest and grassland, the habitat for wildlife is reducing in size. Logging for timber and fuel wood collection by the local villagers results in the reduction of habitat for biodiversity. There is also a lack of monitoring of these activities and to what extent they endanger the natural resources.

The use of heavy vehicles for the construction of spurs (check dams) may have considerable impact on the wildlife habitat but has not been studied.

Other problems in the (general) area are:

a.An increase of human population in the forest area

b.Deforestation

c.Increased numbers of domestic animals in nearby villages

d.Illegal poaching

1.4 Methods

Available secondary data were used to evaluate the Issues in the Sustainable Management of Protected Areas of Nepal. Similar techniques were applied to examinethe impacts of human activities on the wildlife has been used in this research. Additional information was obtained from Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Babarmahal, Kathmandu, UNDP and APEC, Nepal. Human activities were described and analysed. Available data was used for this purpose. The impact of these activities on the natural environment, mainly on vegetation, was described.

2. Result and discussion:

2.1 Nepal Priority for Sustainable Development:

Nepal has given priority to sustainable development. Due to the extreme poverty the sustainable management issues are presently overshadowed by political crisis, insecurity and various other problems. However national plans, laws and policy documents state Nepal’s commitment to sustainable development. The HMGN/NPC/MOPE 2003, Sustainable Development Agenda for Nepal, proclaims:

“The goal of sustainable development in Nepal is to expedite a process that reduces poverty and provides to its citizens and successive generations not just the basic means of livelihood, but also the broadest of opportunities in the social, economic, political, cultural, and ecological aspects of their lives. This begins with the pursuit of increased per capita income afforded by a stable population size that generates a viable and environmentally sound domestic resource base to create and nurture institutions of the state, markets, and civil society, whose services can be accessed equitably by all Nepalis. Basic development processes are to be overseen by accountable units of government with representation of women and men of all ethnicity and socio-economic status, whose management of resources, including the environment, is to be governed by an imperative that the ability of future Nepali generations to sustain or improve upon their quality of life and livelihoods is kept intact. A corollary inherent in viewing sustainable development in Nepal in these broad terms is a national resolve to pursue happy, healthy, and secure lives as citizens who lead a life of honor and dignity in a tolerant, just and democratic nation”[1].

In relation to land issues and natural resource management, the priorities and goals are clear and they represent the government’s commitments. According to the HMGN/NPC/MOPE 2003, Sustainable Development Agenda for Nepal, priority has to be given to resource base ecosystem management: “Land use is planned and managed at the local and national level such that resource bases and ecosystems are improved, with complementarity’s between high- and low- lands, that forest biomass grows, that agricultural and forest lands are protected from urban sprawl, and that biodiversity is conserved at the landscape level by recognizing threats from habitat fragmentation and loss of forest cover, a system of protected areas (including national parks and conservation areas) is maintained and further developed to safeguard the nation’s rich biodiversity. Local communities near protected areas are involved in both the management and economic benefit sharing of the area”[2. ]

The sustainabledevelopment policy document of Nepal has set the first priority with the consideration of its geo-physical, socio-economic and political situation. More than 40% of people are below the poverty line; therefore first priority is given to increasing the per capita income. Population growth rate is 2.25%, birth rate 33.4 births/1000 population, death rate 9.6/1000 population and life expectancy is 59.7 years (CBS 2001). In keeping with these facts, the second priority for sustainability is Health, Population and Settlements. On the basis of the variety of natural resources and the biophysical assets of the country Forests, Ecosystems and Biodiversity takes third priority. Education, Institutions and Infrastructure, and Peace and Security are other agenda priorities of the Government of Nepal.

In this research I highlight the Forests, Ecosystems and Biodiversity issue. Fast degradation of forestland is a post 1950’s phenomenon. During the 1950’s, nationalization of forests took place, leading to the removal of the ownership and management of the resource base away from villagers without changing the demand for forest products. Since then the forest cover has been declining. In 1964 forest cover was 45% and in 1994 it was only 37% (CBS 1994, p32-33). Due to the variation of different terrain and altitude from 100 m from sea level to the mountains up to 8848 m, Nepal is unique with regard to biodiversity and different ecosystems. Protected mammals of Nepal include the Royal Bengal Tiger, Snow Leopard, Spotted Leopard, the Asian One-Horn Rhinoceros, the Asian Elephant, the Gangetic Dolphin, the Grey Wolf, the Assamese Monkey, the Wild Water Buffalo, Wild Yak, the Red Panda and the Pangolin, to mention a few. All together 181 species of mammals are found in the country. The country is also rich in bird life, with 844 species. Nepal has 118 types of forest ecosystems and it is inhabited by 9.3% of the world’s bird species and 4.5% of the world’s mammal species. Over 100 species of reptiles live in the country, including the Gherial Crocodile. Together with 635 species of butterflies and 185 species of fish, this is truly a country where nature is at its peak in diversity. The species of trees and plants are also high, amounting to about 5000, while 342 species of plants and 160 species of animals are considered to be endemic to Nepal. Also the agricultural diversity of Nepal is high, with a high variation among crop species like rice, rice bean, buckwheat, soybean, foxtail millet, and many fruit and vegetable species.[1] Forests provide firewood and animal fodder (among many other products), and animals provide milk and meat, as well as fertilizer for the fields.[2]

2.2 Nepal’s commitment to the sustainable development process

Nepal’s history shows that there was knowledge about the importance of nature and its contribution. Nepal rulers used the Hindu and Buddhist mythology to rule the country and followed the Hindu and Buddhist religions, traditions and culture. According to these mythologies, all living beings have equal importance in the eye of God. Humans are the supreme creation of God and they should honor and protect the creation of God.

“Nepal is in this sense a very special country, with both Buddhism and Hinduism contributing to respect and reverence of nature. In addition several indigenous communities in Nepal have their own traditional beliefs of some witch stress the human dependence on nature. This is probably among the important factors behind the impressing conservation efforts in the country, in only a few decades. In Buddhism the attitudes towards animals and plant life are given in the Five Precepts (panca sila). The first precept involves abstention from injury to life. In the Karaniyametta Sutta, there are instructions in the cultivation of loving-kindness toward all creatures including visible as well as invisible. Buddhism also regards plants and trees highly, especially long lived trees. One legend tells how much compassion Buddha felt for two hungry tiger cubs, so much in fact, that he gave of his own flesh to feed them. Both Hinduism and Buddhism teach that humans are part of nature not above it. Human beings have no right to kill other creatures and exploit other natural resources except. Hinduism as well as Buddhism with their reverence for sacred mountains, sacred rivers, forests and animals has always been close to nature. The Geeta are rich in explaining the aspects of environment and conservation. According to Hinduism; "All religions are part of the processes of discovering the unity of God, Humanity and Nature".[3]According to Hindu Mythology there are 330000000 Gods and Goddesses and each of them has relations with wild flora and fauna. Likewise there is a long list of god and goddess. Apart from these the sources of water land have different identity as god. Indigenous / ethnic community has also their many gods for conservation of nature.[4]

Gods and Goddesses and their association with plants and animals:

Goddess Bagabati (goddess of power)Lion/ tiger Red flowering tree

Lord Shiva (God of law)BullPoisonous plant

Vishnu (God of protection)Stroke (Garuda)Ficus religiosa

Saraswati (Wisdom and knowledge)Swan and peacockLotus

Laxmi (Goddess of wealth)pair of ElephantLotus

Ganesh (the combination of power

Wealth and wisdom)RatSandilon dectilon

Yama (God of death) Wild water buffaloBamboo

This reverence for nature may have helped Nepal towards the sustainable management of natural resources in the past.

2.3Current scenario and Nepal’s commitments on sustainability

In its current commitment to sustainable development, Nepal has participated in international conferences since 1968, the First International Conference for Rational Use and Conservation of the Biosphere, Paris, France. Nepal supported the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, Sweden; known as Stockholm Conference-1972), whose mission was “to provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations” (Sharma 2002). Nepal also acknowledged the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission) and prepared its national plan incorporating the recommended issues of the commission report (1983). Since then, Nepal participated in most of the international conferences from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Earth Summit 1992 to World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2002.

On the basis of documentation, plans and commitments to the international conventions and treaties, Nepal has shown its great interest in the sustainable management of natural resources. However, there is a gap between the theory and real practice.

Policy Documents and Plans Addressing Sustainable Development Issues in Nepal

Eighth Five Year Plan 1992-1997. Poverty alleviation, with emphasis on environmental protection. Recognized NGOs as a driving force for development for the first time. NPC
NEPAP I: Nepal Environmental Policy and Action Plan NEPAP II: Environmental
Strategies and Policies for Industry, Forestry and Water Resources. Initiated in 1993, developed in 1996, implemented in 1998. Broad priorities to address environmental challenges in key natural resource and development sectors. Introduced principles of Agenda 21. Identified detailed action plans for key sectors, as well as cross-sectoral priorities. Prepared by IUCN Nepal for the EPC. Prepared by IUCN Nepal for MOPE.
Agriculture Perspective Plan (APP) 1995. Aimed to increase agricultural productivity and reduce poverty through extended land ownership and agro-based industries. Prepared by PROSOC & John Miller, Inc. USA for NPC/ADB
Ninth Five Year Plan 1997-2002 a 20-year perspective, Sole objective is poverty reduction, through broad based growth; social sector spending; and programs for disadvantaged groups. Emphasis on agriculture, forestry and multi-sectoral approach including environment. NPC
National Conservation Strategy (NCS) 1998. To conserve natural and cultural heritage and meet basic needs, with emphasis on conserving biological diversity and maintaining essential ecosystems. Prepared by IUCN for NPC
Master Plan for the Forestry Sector (MPFS) Initiated in 1999, with a 25-year perspective Sustainable use and management of forests with emphasis on protecting ecosystems, economic growth and meeting basic needs. Prepared by NPC, ADB, Finnida and Jaakko Pyroy for MOFSC3
Interim PRSP Currently being formulated Poverty reduction. Reiterates the broad priorities of the Ninth Plan, with emphasis on strengthening implementation capacity.
NPC
Nepal Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP), 2003, Timeframe extends to 2012. Aims to address the objectives of the Biodiversity Convention in Nepal (for example Conservation, sustainable use and equitable benefit sharing). Proposes the development of national policies on mountain, rangeland and wetland biodiversity, and integration in key natural resource sectors. Prepared by Resources Nepal and other teams for the MOFSC

Identified Sustainable indicators for environment management