Integrated Science Full Review
2015-2016Amended Edition
Nathan Gilbert
Introduction
Science – a system of knowledge based on facts and principles
3 Main Branches of Science
1. Physical (Chemistry, Physics)
2. Life (Biology)
3. Earth/Space
Scientific Method – Observe, Question, Data, Hypothesis, Experiment, Data & Observations, Conclude
Hypothesis – an educated guess at the results of the experiment
Scientific Theory vs. Scientific Law
Law – summary of natural events that can be continually proven by experiments
Theory – summary of natural event with evidence but can’t be proven by experiments
Technology – applied science
Model – used to represent an idea or object unable to be observed directly
Observation – the process of gathering information via the senses
Variable – factor that can cause a change in the results of an experiment
Constant – a variable that does not change when others do
Control – standard used for comparison
Conversions – transferring a measurement from one unit into another
SI System – System International (metric) used in almost all science
-Know basic units for each measurement type
-Know conversion factors for mega, kilo, deci, centi, milli, micro, nano, pico
-Derived Units – metric units made up of two or more bases (ex: m/s, g/mL)
Types of Graphs – Bar, Line (including scatter plots), Pie (Circle)
Interpreting Graphs
Variables and Axis
Independent Variable – on X (horizontal) Axis (usually time if that is a variable)
Dependent Variable – on Y (vertical) Axis, depends on independent variable
Pay attention to axis titles and units
Significant Figures
- All non-zeros are significant
- Zeros between non-zeros are significant
- Trailing zeros in a number with a decimal are significant
- Leading zeros are NOT significant
Scientific Notation – allows you to write big numbers in a small format
Step 1. Move the decimal to the right of the number furthest to the left that isn’t zero
Step 2. Count how many places you moved the decimal
a)If you moved the decimal to the left, the exponent is positive
b)If you moved the decimal to the right, the exponent is negative
Examples: 582,000 = 5.82 x 105 or 0.00000013 = 1.3 x 10-7
Precision – measurements that are close together, consistency
Accuracy – measurements that are close to the accepted value
APA Formatting
1” margins each side
Font: Arial, Times New Roman, or Calibri and size 10-12
For science no personal nouns or pronouns
Double space all pages
Header has all caps title top left (“Running head:” page 1) and page number top right
Title page includes title, author, organization, instructor, and date, all bold and centered
Abstract page has bold, centered “Abstract” and a short, non-indented paragraph summary of the paper, including results.
Lab Report includes the sections: Title, Introduction, Materials, Procedures, Data and Observations, Discussion, Conclusion
Bibliography page has bold, centered “Bibliography.”
References include author, date, title italicized with only first word capitalized, city, publisher, date retrieved (web)
Chemistry
Chemistry – study of matter and how it changes
Matter – anything that has mass and takes up space
Law of Conservation of Matter – matter cannot be created or destroyed
Law of Conservation of Energy – energy cannot be created or destroyed
Atom – smallest particle of an element that still retains the properties of it
Nucleus – center of atom contain protons and neutrons with an overall positive charge
Subatomic Particles – 3 small parts of the atom
Protons – Positive charge found in the nucleus
Neutrons – Neutral charge found in the nucleus
Electron – Small negative charge found in clouds outside of nucleus
Valence electron – electron on highest energy level
Atomic Theories
Democritus – came up with concept of an atom
Dalton’s Atomic Theory - all substances made of tiny particles that cannot be subdivided (wrong)
Bohr’s Model – electrons orbit around nucleus like planets around sun
Modern Theory – electrons vibrate between energy levels
Electron Energy Levels – Electrons have a high probability of acting on certain levels
Order – 1S, 2S, 2P, 3S, 3P, 4S, 4D, 4P, 5S, 5D, 5P…
-Where S can hold 2 electrons, p 6, d 10, f 14
Shortcut to highest level by looking at period (periodic table row) by relabeled group (column)
Octet rule – 8 valence electrons to be stable
Electron Configuration – arrows demonstrating spin of electrons by energy level
Electron Orbitals – Circles demonstrating energy levels of electrons
Pure vs. Impure Substances
Pure substances (elements/compounds) are in exact ratios vs Impure (mixtures) which are not
Element – pure substance with elements that are all alike (ex: C {carbon}, He {Helium})
Most abundant in humans is Oxygen
Most abundant in earth is Iron
Most abundant in atmosphere is Nitrogen
Key elements 1-36, Ag, Au, Hg, and Pb (know name, symbol, atomic #, uses of most)
Period Table – arranged by number of protons
4 Important Families (related sections of the table)
1 – Alkali – very reactive metals that form salts with halogens (group 1)
- Explode in water
2 – Alkaline Earth – reactive metals (group 2)
3 – Halogens – poisonous reactive nonmetals that form salts with alkalis (group 17)
- Used in cleaning supplies
4 – Noble Gases – stable gases (group 18)
- Used in storage of materials
Developed by Mendelev with Atomic Mass
Edited by Moseley by Atomic Number
Periods – horizontal rows
Groups – vertical columns
Periodic Table Regions
Metals – left side, mostly solids, shiny, malleable, conduct heat and electricity
Nonmetals – right side, mostly gases, brittle, poor conductors of heat and electricity
Metalloids – along stairstep, mixed metal and nonmetal properties
Compound – pure substance formed of atoms of multiple elements chemically bonded together (ex: H2O, NaCl)
Mixture – a combination of more than one pure substance
Miscible – liquid dissolves in liquid (ex: alcohol in water)
Immiscible – liquid won’t dissolve in liquid (ex: oil in water)
Homogenous – solid dissolves in liquid (ex: salt in water)
Heterogeneous – solid won’t dissolve in liquid (ex: flour in water)
Gas dissolved in liquid (ex: CO2 in soft drinks)
Physical vs. Chemical Change
Physical Change – any change that does not change the chemical identity (ex: ice melting, tearing paper)
Chemical Change – any change that does change the chemical identity (ex: chemical reaction, rust, burn)
Physical vs. Chemical Property
Physical Property – can be observed with a physical change (ex: change of state, malleability)
Chemical Property – observation requires a chemical change (ex: flammability, reactivity)
Density – physical property of mass per volume
Equation – D = m/V
Buoyancy – less dense items float, more dense items sink
Viscosity – Resistance of a fluid to flow (ex: molasses more viscous than water)
Ionic vs. Covalent Bonding
Ionic – electrons are donated
Name using metal followed by nonmetal with –ide ending
For transition metals include charge in roman numerals after metal name
Cation – positively charged ions
Anion – negatively charged ions
Oxidation Number – number that indicates how many electrons gained or lost by an atom
Polyatomic Ions – charged group of atoms, know 16 primary name, formula, and charge
PO43-,CN-, SO42-, ClO2-, CH3COO-, O22-, HS-, C6H5COO-, CrO42-, OH-, CO32-, NO3-, MnO4-, ClO3-, NO2- SO32-
Covalent – electrons are shared
Diatom – two atoms of the same element bonded together
Name using least electromagnetic first with –ide ending, include the number of atoms of each element
Chemical Equation – a symbolic representation of a reaction
Reactants – ingredients placed on the left of the equation
Products – final results of a reaction on the right of the equation
Yield – arrow representing the direction of the reaction, similar to an equal sign of the equation
4 Basic Reactions and Combustion
Synthesis – A + B → AB (ex: Na + Cl → NaCl)
Decomposition – AB → A + B (ex: NaCl → Na + Cl)
Single Replacement – AX + B → A + BX (ex: NaCl + Li → Na + LiCl)
Double Replacement – AX + BY → AY + BX (ex: NaCl + LiBr → NaBr + LiCl)
Combustion – Involves the burning of Oxygen
Endothermic Reaction – reaction that requires heat energy to proceed
Exothermic Reaction – reaction in which energy is primarily given off in the form of heat
Catalyst – a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being permanently changed itself
Balancing Equations – adding coefficients to each element or compound in an equation
Stoichiometry – using mathematical conversions and balanced equations to predict product and reactant quantities
Method: For predictions of mass or moles, use moler mass and balanced equation
Hydrate – any compound containing water, usually in a definite ratio by weight
Isotope – variation of an element with a specific neutron number
Radioactivity – process that occurs when a nucleus decays
4 Types
1 – Alpha – weakest type stopped by paper, +2 charge, used in smoke detectors, 42He
2 – Beta – high energy electron, -1 charge, used in radioactive diagnosis tracers, 0-1e
3 – Gamma – electromagnetic ray, does not require medium, doesn’t ionize, used in cancer treatment
4 – Neutron Emission – high energy neutron released during radioactive decay, strongest type
Half-Life – time it takes for half of a sample to decay
Fusion vs. Fission
Fusion – combining of 2 nuclei
Fission – splitting of a nuclei
Functional Groups – a specific group of atoms that frequently bond in molecules (know list)
- alkane, alkene, alkyne, phenyl, alkyl halide, amine, hydroxyl, ether, aldehyde, ketone, carboxyl, ester, amide
Thermodynamics
Kinetic Theory – as temperature increases particles move faster and spread out
- All particles are in motion
- Smaller Particles move faster
- Warmer Particles move faster
Types of heat transfer
Conduction – heat transfer between two items in contact
Conductor – anything that readily allows the transfer of heat energy (ex: iron)
Insulator – anything that prohibits the transfer of thermal energy (ex: air)
Convection – heat transfer in fluid through currents of hot (less dense) rising and cold falling
Radiation – electromagnetic heat transfer which does not require a medium (material) to travel through
Temperature – measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a system
Celsius: C = 5/9 (F – 32) or C = K – 273
Fahrenheit: F = (9/5 C) + 32
Kelvin: K = C + 273
Absolute Zero – temperature of 0 K where particles would stop moving
Specific Heat – the amount of heat required to raise 1 kg of a substance by a degree Celsius
Q = m*(TF-TI)*C
Heat of Fusion – the amount of energy required to turn one gram of a substance from solid to liquid
Heat of Vaporization – the amount of energy required to turn one gram of a substance from liquid to gas
Thermal Energy – sum of the kinetic and potential energy of the particles in an object
1stLaw of Thermo – the increase in thermal E equals work done on the system plus the thermal E transferred
2ndLaw of Thermo – it is impossible for thermal E to flow from a cold object to a warmer object unless work is done
Internal Combustion Engine – intake, compression, power, exhaust
Entropy – a measure of how spread out or dispersed energy is
Forces and Motion
Displacement – the distance and direction of an object’s final position from its initial position
Vector – a quantity showing both size and direction of a motion
Speed – the distance an object travel per unit of time (v = d/t)
Instantaneous Speed – the speed of an object at a single instant in time
Average Speed – the total distance traveled divided by the total travel time
Velocity – the speed of the object and its direction of motion
Acceleration – the change in velocity divided by the change in time (a = (vf-vi)/tf-ti))
Force – a push or pull that one object exerts on another
Net Force – the cumulative force of two objects
Balanced vs. Unbalanced Forces
Balanced Forces – equal and opposite forces having a net force of 0
Unbalanced Forces – forces combine to produce nonzero net force causing acceleration
Friction – the force that opposes the sliding motion of two surfaces that are in contact
Static Friction – frictional force that prevents 2 surfaces from sliding past each other
Sliding Friction – force that acts in the opposite direction to the motion of sliding objects
Air Resistance – friction against an object moving through the air
Terminal Velocity – final velocity where force of air resistance equals gravity
Newtons 1st Law – Only unbalanced forces change motion
Inertia – the tendency of an object to resist a change in motion
Newtons 2nd Law – the acceleration of an object is in the same direction as the net force on the object
Force = mass x acceleration
Newtons 3rd Law – for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
Momentum – the product of an object’s mass and velocity
Momentum (p) = mass (m) x velocity (v)
Law of Conservation of Momentum – total momentum is conserved within a system
Gravity – the attractive force between two objects based on mass and distance
F = G(m1m2)/d2
Weight v Mass – mass is amount of substance while weigh is how gravity impacts mass
Centripetal Acceleration – acceleration toward the center of a curved circular path
Centripetal Force – net force exerted toward the center of a curved path
Work and Energy
Energy – the ability to do work
Measured in Joules (J)
Kinetic Energy – the energy of a moving object has because of its motion
KE = ½ x mass x velocity2
Potential Energy – stored energy due to potential
Elastic Potential Energy – energy stored by something that can stretch or compress such as a rubber band
Chemical Potential Energy – energy stored in the form of chemical bonds
Gravitational Potential Energy – energy stored due to an objects position above the earth
GPE = mass x gravity x height
Mechanical Energy – the total amount of potential and kinetic energy in a system
Project Motion – curved motion of a thrown or hit object as its energy changes between mechanical and potential
Law of Conservation – Energy is conserved but some energy in a system may be lost as heat due to friction
Fusion and Fission – Mass can be converted to energy through the processes of nuclear fusion and fission
Calorie – unit used by nutritionist to measure how much energy comes from various foods
Work – the energy transferred when a force makes an object move, has direction
Work (J) = Force (N) x Distance (m)
Power – the amount of work done in one second or the rate at which work is done
Power (W) = Work (J) / Time (s)
Machine –device that makes doing work easier by multiplying force or changing direction
Work Input = Work Output
Mechanical Advantage – ratio of output force to input force
Mechanical Advantage = output force (Newtons) / input force (Newtons)
Efficiency – a measure of how much of the work put into a machine is change into useful work output
Efficiency (%) = work output (J) / work input (J)
Simple Machine – a machine that does work with only one movement
- Lever – a bar that is free to pivot or turn around a fixed point
- 1st Class – fulcrum in center (pry bar)
- 2nd Class – output force in center (wheelbarrow)
- 3rd Class – input force in center (baseball bat)
- Pulley – grooved wheel with a rope, chain, or cable running along it
- Fixed Pulley – single pulley attached to a fixed position
- Moveable Pulley – a pulley in which one end of the rope is fixed and the wheel is free to move
- Block and Tackle – a system of pulleys consisting of both fixed and moveable
- Wheel and Axel – consists of a shaft or axle attached to the center of a larger wheel and rotate together
Ex: screwdriver, doorknobs, faucets, gears
- Inclined Planes – a sloping surface that reduces the amount of force required to do work
- Screw – inclined plane wrapped in a spiral around a cylinder
- Wedge – an inclined plane with one or two sloping sides
Compound Machine – two or more simple machines that operate together
Waves
Waves – repeating disturbance that transfers energy (not matter)
Mechanical vs. Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic – a wave not requiring a medium (ex: ultraviolet light can pass through outer space)
Mechanical – a wave requiring a medium (ex: sound waves cannot be heard in outer space)
Medium – matter though which energy travels (ex: the medium for an ocean wave is the water)
Transverse vs. Compressional Mechanical Waves
Transverse – wave which energy and matter move perpendicular to each other (up and down)
Example: water wave
Compressional – wave which energy and matter move parallel to each other (long ways)
Example: sound wave
Parts of Waves
Crest – high point of transverse wave
Trough – low point of transverse wave
Compression – compacted part of compressional wave
Rarefaction – less dense or spread out portion of a compressional wave
Normal – middle or rest line
Amplitude – amount of energy transferred by the wave which determines the intensity
-measured from the normal to either the crest or the trough
Wavelength – the distance of one wave (represented by the symbol Lambda {λ})
Period – the time it takes for one wave to pass
Frequency – the number of waves that pass a point each second
-Calculated by f = 1/T where T is the time period
-Units – Hertz (Hz)
-Pitch – human perception of the frequency of sound waves
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Gamma Rays – highest energy, highest frequency, lowest wave length, used to treat cancer
X-Rays – used in medicine
Ultraviolet
Visible Light –
Color Spectrum-
Lights – as lights add together they produce white
- objects can only reflect the colors available in the light
- white light includes all colors of light
Pigments – as pigments add together they produce black
Infrared
Microwaves
Radio Waves – lowest energy, lowest frequency, longest wave length, used for communication (includes TV)
Interactions of waves with the environment
Reflection – bouncing back of a wave (examples: mirrors and sonar)
Law of Reflection – the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
Real vs. Virtual Image
Real Image – Image seems to pass through (curved mirrors)
Virtual Image – Image seems to be behind mirror (plane mirrors)
Sonar – echolocation (ex: submarines, bats, dolphins)
Refraction – bending of a wave as it goes from one medium to another (ex: straw in glass of water)
Dispersion – light refracting through a prism is broken into individual colors
Diffraction – bending of a wave around a corner (ex: double slit experiment)
- When a wave goes through a slit it forms a new wave on the other side
- When a wave goes through two slits the two new waves interfere with each other
Interference – two waves interact with one another
Constructive Interference – two waves add together
Destructive Interference – two waves subtract from one another
Standing Wave – wave pattern where two equal and opposite wave continually interfere (used in music)
Node – point of no movement (at normal)
Anti-nodes – points of maximum vibration (crests and troughs)