SAEO 2012 Chapter 5 Human Settlements
2012 SOUTH AFRICA ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK
Part 1
Chapter 5: Human Settlements
Draft 3: 17 May 2013
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Due date for comments: 31 May 2013
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 HUMAN SETTLEMENTS AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 1
3 DISTRIBUTION OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS 2
3.1 Settlement distribution as a driver of environmental change 2
3.2 The state of settlement distribution 2
3.2.1 Urban settlements 4
3.2.2 Rural settlements 5
3.3 Impact of settlement distribution on the environment 6
4 SETTLEMENT STRUCTURE 8
4.1 Settlement structure as a driver of environment change 8
4.2 The state of settlement structure 9
4.2.1 Low density sprawl 9
4.2.2 Housing 10
4.3 The impact of settlement structure on the environment 14
6 TRANSPORT 15
7 INFRASTRUCTURE 17
7.1 Basic services as a driver of environmental change 17
7.2 The impact of the delivery and consumption of basic services on the environment 17
8 VULNERABILITY AND FOOD INSECURITY 18
9 RESPONSES 19
9.1 Post-apartheid planning 20
9.2 The state of basic services 20
9.2.1 Electricity 20
9.2.2 Water 21
9.2.3 Sanitation 23
9.3 Legislative framework 23
9.3.1 National Environmental Management Act 23
9.3.2 Local Government Municipal Systems Act 24
9.3.3 Breaking New Ground 24
9.3.4 Spatial Planning and Land Use Management Bill 25
9.3.5 National Strategy for Sustainable Development, 2011-2014 (NSSD 1) 26
9.3.6 The National Greening Framework for Events Management and the Built Environment 26
9.4 Gap between policy and implementation 26
9.4.1 Housing 27
9.4.2 Infrastructure 27
9.4.3 Land use management 27
9.4.4 Spatial planning 28
9.4.5 Resource use 28
9.4.6 Skills availability at municipalities, provincial government and state departments 28
10 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 29
11 CASE STUDIES 29
12 References 33
TABLES
Table 1: Distribution of population, economic activity for urban and rural settlements 3
Table 2: Percentage of households living in informal type of dwellings by province Census 1996, 2001, 2011 and Community Survey 2007 12
Table 3: Poverty headcount by year 19
FIGURES
Figure 1: Distribution of human settlements in South Africa 3
Figure 2: Example of the extent of rural sprawl (Bushbuckridge, Mpumalanga) 7
Figure 3: Example of the impact of rural sprawl on the environment (Bushbuckridge, Mpumalanga) 8
Figure 4: Example of subsidized housing 12
Figure 5: Informal settlement next to a mine dump 13
Figure 6: Number of rented shacks in large municipalities, 2008 14
Figure 7: Energy demand by economic sector for 2006 16
Figure 11: Water source for drinking % 22
1
SAEO 2012 Chapter 5 Human Settlements
1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the current state of South African human settlements and their impact on the natural environment. The chapter will focus on the material conditions of the entire spectrum of human settlements from large metropoles or city regions to villages.
2 HUMAN SETTLEMENTS AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
Human settlements are one of, if not the most important drivers of environmental change. Although they cover only seven percent of the total area of the country, they generate more than 90 percent of all economic activity and house over 70 percent of the total population (CSIR 2011). Human settlements drive the depletion of renewable and non-renewable resources, the destruction of ecologically sensitive land and habitats, and the pollution of natural systems through the use of natural resources and the production of waste products. Moreover, the impact of human settlements on the environment increases as the population grows and human settlements expand.
The relationship between human settlements and the natural environment or ecological system is complex and continually changing. The natural environment provides the basic elements that human beings need to survive such as food, water and shelter. Most human settlements are therefore located in areas with abundant natural resources such as next to rivers, close to minerals or high potential agricultural land. In the process of harvesting the natural resources human beings impact on the environment firstly by overuse or exploitation of resources and secondly through the production of waste materials and pollution. This leads to a degradation of the very environment that human beings depend on.
There are various authors who believe that the concern about the environment and its protection is more likely in developed societies where people have higher socio-economic status. However, there are other studies which show that environmental concerns in poorer communities can be achieved through increased awareness of environment pollution as well as a willingness to take action to alleviate these conditions. In the South African context, for the most part, lack of awareness is the major issue affecting people’s attitudes towards the environment (Anderson et al 2010). Generally, environmental matters are not a high priority for the South African public. The presence of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, high unemployment, a high crime rate, continuing poverty for many rural Africans and growing inequality are possible reasons for the small percentage of households perceiving environmental pollution as a community issue.
3 DISTRIBUTION OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
The distribution of human settlements refers to the size of settlements and their locality. This section discusses the distribution of human settlements in South Africa and their impact on the natural environment.
3.1 Settlement distribution as a driver of environmental change
The distribution of human settlements drives environmental change in several ways:
· Settlements are often located in areas with attractive natural features (e.g. next to the coast or rivers) that may contain sensitive habitats which are destroyed or at least damaged by settlement growth.
· As settlements extract natural resources, those that are located in water-scarce areas place pressure on the water sources.
· Settlements that are experiencing rapid growth threaten surrounding natural areas and high potential agricultural land.
· Fast-growing settlements often struggle to keep up with the demand for infrastructural services thus creating potential pollution problems.
3.2 The state of settlement distribution
The distribution of human settlements in South Africa has been shaped not only by the locality of natural features and resources but also by the legacy of apartheid, which has left a profoundly uneven landscape. As an example, there a large populations in cities and a thinly distributed network of smaller cities and towns across the interior with overstretched logistics networks and dense rural settlements in former homelands (DEA 2011a).
In order to determine the patterns of settlement development, the CSIR (2011) developed a typology of settlements particular to the unique South African circumstances. The typology includes a range of settlements from urban to rural. Rural areas have been divided into dense rural settlements and other sparsely populated areas. The distribution of human settlements is illustrated in Figure 1.
The largest settlements are located in Gauteng and along the coast. The Eastern Cape (specifically the eastern coast and inland areas) and KwaZulu-Natal (specifically the northern areas) are characterized by large numbers of dense rural settlements and a number of towns that are fulfilling a limited regional service role, created by the apartheid policy of Bantustans. In Limpopo, North-West and Mpumalanga there is a network of towns, regional access corridors as well as clustered and dispersed settlements in many instances related to mineral resources. The Northern Cape has the least number and lowest order settlements due to inhospitable conditions (NPC 2011a).
There is a trend towards increased spatial concentration and agglomeration, meaning that urban areas, especially the larger towns and cities, are growing resulting in some declinging smaller towns. People are migrating in search of access to concentrations of economic opportunities, jobs and public services, albeit permanently or temporarily.
Figure 1: Distribution of human settlements in South Africa
Data source: (NPC 2011b)
Urban settlements accommodate the bulk of the population (68 percent) and make the biggest contribution to national economic activity (86 percent) but occupy the smallest percentage of land area (seven percent). In contrast, rural settlements accommodate 25 percent of the population, occupy more land area than urban settlements (8 percent), but make the smallest contribution to the national economy (six percent). Farms and other land uses make up 85 percent of the national land area and contribute 8.3 percent of national economic activity, which is more than what rural settlements contribute.
Table 1: Distribution of population, economic activity for urban and rural settlements
SA SETTLEMENT TYPES / % OF NATIONAL POPULATION / % OF NATIONAL ECONOMIC ACTIVITY / % OF NATIONAL LAND AREA /URBAN SETTLEMENTS / 68.10 / 85.80 / 6.80
RURAL SETTLEMENTS / 25.20 / 5.90 / 8.40
FARMS/ REST OF SOUTH AFRICA / 6.70 / 8.30 / 84.80
TOTAL National / 100.00 / 100.00 / 100.00
Data source: NPC 2011a
3.2.1 Urban settlements
Urban settlements are divided into ‘city-regions and cities’ and towns. Towns are further differentiated as regional service centres, service towns or local niche towns.
3.2.1.1 City-regions and cities
A city is defined as being home to more than 400000 people, comprising significant and multi-nodal economies, and also significant economic and public service functions. A city-region usually consists of a conurbation of settlements with multiple administrative districts, but sharing resources like a central business district, labour market or transport network.
Nine city-regions and cities of South Africa accommodate 40 percent of the total population and 62 percent of the national economy but cover only two percent of the total land area. The city-regions include Gauteng, the City of Cape Town, eThekwini and Nelson Mandela Bay and the cities are Nelspruit (Mbombela), East London (Buffalo City), Polokwane, Bloemfontein (Mangaung) and Pietermaritzburg (Msunduzi).
The populations and size of cities and city-regions have been growing rapidly due to natural growth and in-migration and urbanization. Migrants move to these settlements mostly in search of jobs but also in search of housing and social facilities. The growth and in-migration of mostly poor and young people have created a situation where these settlements have the highest employment rates and household income but also the largest numbers of people living in poverty. The situation is similar for services where these settlements have large numbers of the population with access to services but also the largest backlogs. They also have the highest income inequalities (CSIR 2008).
3.2.1.2 Regional service centres
Regional service centres are medium and higher order settlements that are prominent service centres within particular hinterlands. These settlements are home to 14.8 percent of the national population, accommodate 13.9 percent of the national economic activity and occupy 1.7 percent of the national land (CSIR 2008).
Regional service centres include
· large (in terms of population) towns in former Bantustans with a large number of dispersed rural settlements surrounding them (such as Mthata in the Eastern Cape and Thohoyandou in Limpopo);
· towns in resource rich areas (e.g. Rustenburg in the North-West Province, Middelburg and Secunda in Mpumalanga); and
· towns playing key service roles within more isolated areas (such as Upington and Springbok in the Northern Cape) (CSIR 2008).
The latter two types of settlements have grown and typically attract people in search of either service or economic opportunities, even though at a lesser scale than cities and city regions. The first category towns are experiencing strong out-migration trends in their surrounding areas. However, they still carry the brunt of town-ward migration, continued natural population growth and huge dependency ratios, with economies characterized by dependency on the government and community services sectors.
Regional service centres located on key regional access routes and corridors are typically marked by higher rates of growth, both in terms of population and economic opportunities, while those in former Bantustan areas typically have much higher dependency ratios (CSIR 2008).
3.2.1.3 Service towns and local niche towns
Service towns and local niche towns are smaller towns that are mostly fulfilling the role of service centres within a local area or region. They fulfil a function or service:
· within their direct vicinity (e.g. Giyani in Limpopo);
· for a broader community on particular corridor/access routes (e.g. Estcourt in KwaZulu-Natal or Malmesbury in the Western Cape); or
· of a particular niche role such as tourism (i.e. Clarens in the Free State).
The fortunes of these settlements vary from high economic growth rates (typically tourist niche towns such as Prince Albert in the Western Cape), or high population growth (typically places on access routes such as Alice in the Eastern Cape) to decline mostly associated with economic stagnation/population decline in the surrounding area, such as Koppies in the Free State province (CSIR, 2011).
3.2.2 Rural settlements
Clustered and dispersed settlements includes rural nodes and clusters, which are typically clusters of settlements with very limited service roles; and densely settled rural areas/dispersed rural settlements which characterize the former Bantustan areas and are often under traditional land ownership (CSIR 2008).
The economy of many of these settlements is based on remittances, grants and subsidies.
3.3 Impact of settlement distribution on the environment
Continued and concentrated economic and population growth are putting pressure on the natural environment not only in the largest cities and towns but also in the densely populated rural areas. Water sources are stretched as the demand for water increases, carbon emissions increase as the demand for private transport and energy increases and bio-diversity is threatened as settlements sprawl ever larger. However, the impact of human settlements on the environment differs depending on the type of settlement.
City-regions and cities have a profound impact on the environment and climate change and are vulnerable due to their dependency on natural resources and risk for disaster:
· Although access to water sources are in place, these are mostly due to water transfers, especially in the case of Gauteng and Cape Town;
· There is a growing water demand due to growing populations;
· Bio-diversity is being threatened due to rapid outward expansion and sprawl, and internal fragmentation of ecosystems;
· Large populations and economies translate into increased pressures on carbon emissions, waste and energy;
· Concentration of people leaves them vulnerable to natural or man-made disasters.