History of India – 1.4.c.2a
Neolithic – Chalcolithic cultures in non-Harappan India
GLOSSARY
Chalcolithic Culture – A phase in the development of human culture also known as Copper Age in which use of early metal tools appeared alongside the use of stone tools; it occurred in the 4th millennium BC.
Neolithic Culture – A phase in the development of human culture also known as New Stone Age in which farming came into existence; it occurred in the 9500 BC.
Harappan Civilization – A Bronze Age civilization discovered in the Indian sub-continent along the Indus; it was believed to have flourished over a period of 2200 years between 3500 B.C. and 1300 B.C.
Assemblage – All the artifacts found together in a site or a group of sites.
Microlithic – a small stone tool usually made of flint or chert and typically a centimetre or so in length and half a centimetre wide. It is produced either from a small blade, or a larger blade-like piece of flint.
Ahar-Banas culture – a Chalcolithic archaeological culture of southeastern Rajasthan, India, lasting from c. 3000 to 1500 BCE; contemporary and adjacent to the Indus Valley Civilization.
Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture –a Chalcolithic archaeological culture of northeastern Rajasthan, India from c. 3800 BCE to 1500 BCE
Malwa and Kayatha culture – Chalcolithic archaeological cultures of Central India, in the Malwa plateau region
Material culture – artifacts or other concrete things left by past cultures
Culture – similar assemblage of tools, ornaments and other products of human labour, or artifacts, that are found in a layer in one or more sites, along with indicators of similar customs, and belief systems,and in the of disposal of the dead.
OBJECTIVES
The students will
- Learn about the Ahar-Banas culture of Rajasthan.
- Know about the Malwa culture.
- Study the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture.
- Trace the cultural connections of these civilizations with the Harappans.
SUMMARY
The Chalcolithic sites in India, outside the orbit of Harappa, are located in Rajasthan, the Malwa region, and in the Deccan. In Rajasthan there are two cultures – the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture in the north eastern part, and the Ahar-Banas culture, in the south easternregion.. These are contemporaneous cultures. Gilund and Balathalare the two sites of the Ahar-Banas culture. The cultural complex in Central India, is known as Kayatha culture, and Malwa culture.
The common feature in all these cultures was the use of copper artifacts. The dwelling places were made of mud, bricks and stones. The pottery was unique in each culture. Semi-precious beads and stone jewellery were also discovered.
Interestingly some of the material objects, like the copper artifacts, bead jewellery and pottery bear a strong resemblance to Harappan counterparts, thereby suggesting some kind of connection with the Harappan culture.
FAQs
1. What does the term Chalcolithic imply?
The term Chalcolithic signifies the first use of copper and bronze in a lithic context, which means that a full fledge stone tool using community, first begins to use copper artifacts.
2. Mention the places where Chalcolithic cultures flourished outside Harappan Civilization.
Chalcolithic cultures that flourished outside the Harappan ambit,are found in Rajasthan, Malwa region in central India, and in the Deccan.
3. Highlight the significance of the Chalcolithic culture.
This period is very important in Indian history, because it signifies certain shifts. It signifies technological innovation on the one hand, and on the other hand it also signifies cultural contacts between diverse groups. This is a phase where the intensification of craft specialization brought about new complexities in early societies.
4. Where are the Chalcolithic cultures in Rajasthan located?
The Chalcolithic clusters first encountered in India outside the Harappan orbit,werelocated in north eastern Rajasthan especially round the copper mines in Khetri and the Baleshwar area. About eighty sites have been discovered around the districts of Sikar, Jhunjhun and Alwar. This cultural complex is called Ganeshwar-Jodhpura.Another cultural complex has been discovered in the south east of Rajasthan,at Ahar and which is located in the river valleys of Banas and Berak. It is called the Ahar-Banas culture.
5. Why is the Ahar culture complex called Banas culture?
The Ahar culture complex is located in the river valleys of Banas and Berak, whichis why it is also called the Banas culture.
6. Describe the economy of the Ahar culture.
The Ahar cultural complex is significant for the use of rice.The stone tool repertoire contains food processing units like saddle querns, semi precious stone beads, and bones of domesticated animals, like cow, buffalo, sheep, goat and pig. It therefore appears to bea complete culture which practised mixed farm economy.
7. Describe the wall fortification of Balathal.
Balathal is remarkable because for its fortified enclosure. The fortification wall is quite substantial, and isbuilt of stone blocks packed with mud. The four bastions at the four corners are clearly discernable.
8. Describe the pottery found in Gilund.
The region has produced pottery of an astounding variety. Apart from red ware, tan ware, red and black ware, and buff colored ware,there is a different kind of reserve slip ware which has a very thin red coloured decoration painted on it, and a very thick red slip with incised designs.
9.How do we know that there was some connection between Gujarat Harappan and Rajasthan Chalcolithic complex?
Etched carnelian beads, and beads of lapis lazuli, have been recovered from the Rajasthan Chalcolithic sites. These beads are very typical of the Gujarat Harappan culture, and thus suggests some kind of cultural connection between the Gujarat Harappan and the Rajasthan Chalcolithic complex.
10. How do we know that there was cultural connection between Kayatha and Harappa?
Kayatha might have had connections with the Harappan culture because the steatite beads from Kayatha, as well as the potteryand axes resemble the Harappan specimens.
QUIZ Complete
1. The earliest discovered Chalcolithic site is
A) Ahar B) Jodhpura C) Balathal
2. Copper was being smelted and manufactured from
A) Ganeshwar B) Malwa C) Kayatha
3. Balathal is a Chalcolithic site belonging to the
A) Ganeshwar-Jodhpura comples B) Banas Ahar complex
C) Kayatha complex
4. Gilund is located in the district of
A) Udaipur B) Jaipur C) Jaisalmer
5. Storage bins feature quiet prominently at the site of
A) Ahar B) Jodhpura C) Gilund
6.A ritualistic pit was discovered in
A) Dangwada B) Chambal C) Navdatoli
7. Kayatha lies on the
A) Malwa Plateau B) Deccan Plateau C) Chotanagpur Plateau
8. The site that was abandoned in about 1800 BCE was
A) Gilund B) Kayatha C) Balathal
9. The axes from Kayatha resemble the axes from
A) Harappa B) Balathal C) Ganeshwar
10. The typical red on black pottery is found in
A) Jodhpura B) Gilund C) Kayatha
ASSIGNMENT
1. Elucidate the various changes that occured in the Chalcolithic cultures.
2. Give an account of the three phases at Ganeshwar.
3.Site the evidences that prove that the Rajasthan Chalcolithic cultures had connection to the Harappans.
4. Describe the site of Balathal.
5. Highlight the material culture found in Kayatha and Malwa.
History of India – 1.4.c.2a
Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultures in non-Harappan India
The term Chalcolithic signifies the first use of copper and bronze in a lithic context, which means that a full fledge stone tool using community first begins to use copper artifacts. In the context of Indian prehistory, we find that such Chalcolithic cultures had flourished over a wide region. The first sites were found in Rajasthan, the Malwa region in central India, and in the Deccan. The period ranges from round the third millennium BCE. The Chalcolithic period is significant for a number of reasons. It was marked by
technological innovation,and cultural contacts between diverse groups. This is also a phase when the intensification of craft specialization brought about certain new complexities in early societies.
Chalcolithic cultures represent a stage when the early farming communities began to use non-ferrous metals like copper, but in a small way. Little change can however be detected in the socio-economic structure of these communities,when they moved from the Neolithic phase to the Chalcolithic phase, which means that the new or improved technologies could not effect changes in the other aspects of their lives.The simple, tribal,non-Harappan village communities, did not transform themselves into a more complex system, in the manner that the Harappan people had been able to develop.They were contemporary to the Harappans, but continued to remain at a relatively simple stage.In certain parts of the subcontinent we notice, that copper began to be used as early as 3000 BCE.
The Chalcolithic clusters first encountered in India, outside the Harappan orbit, were located in north-eastern Rajasthan, especially round the region rich in copper mines, in Khetri and Baleshwar area. About eighty sites have been discovered in this region, around the districts of Sikar, Jhunjhunu and Alwar. This cultural complex goes by the name of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura, in accordance with the type-sites which were first discovered.
Jodhpura was the earliest to be discovered in 1970. It has yielded a very early date of civilization, where the first period belongs to a hunting gathering community(earliest dates being around the last quarter of fourth millennium BCE), with a continuous occupation up to 2000 BCE. The distinctive type of pottery that has been retrieved, is wheel made, ranging in colour from orange to red. Another site called Ganeshwar is located near the Neemkathana area.
At Ganeshwar, one comes across three cultural phases. The first phase starts around 3800 BCE, when the occupiers seem to belong to the hunting gathering community. The assemblage consistedmostly of microliths, and some sort of dwelling signatures.
But it is in period II which belongs to 2800 BCE, that the initiation of copper occurs. Copper artifacts come in the nature of, fish hooks, arrow heads, spear heads, as well as a single piece of copper awl, or sharp needle kind of tool. Inhabitants here appear to have been living in small circular huts of wattle and daub. The floors were prepared by plastering with rammed pieces of rock or pebble.
Period III has revealed a wide range of copper artifacts, like spear heads, arrow heads, fish hooks, and in addition to these some special type of axes, knives, as well as ornaments, like copper bangles and rings. There is a sharp decline in the use of microliths, and the culture denotes the peak of the Chalcolithic civilization.
There is evidence of interesting cultural contacts. The pottery from Ganeshwar resembles the pottery from the early Harappan context, especially those from the early Harappan sites from Gujarat. It also seems that the kind of potterythat was found from the early Harappan context at Banawali was discovered as surface finds from the site of Ganeshwar, suggesting the possibilityof direct contact.
Dr. Dilip Chakrabarti suggests that it seems that the copper that was being smelted and manufactured from Ganeshwar was probably getting transported to the Harappan sites of Kunal and Kalibangan. He also states that the huge array of copper objects found from Ganeshwar actually signified a propensity towards craft specialization among the people at Ganeshwar.
These people were simple tribal folks no doubt, but they had a specialized occupation of working with metals and probably supplying metal objects as well as smelted metal to the people in Kalibangan or Kunal or even farther to the north and west. The use of copper,and bronze was a catalytic factor in the emergence of the urban Harappan community. Therefore as a peripheral culture, the Chalcolithic context of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura probably contributed to the Harappan cultural orbit.
The Banas culture is contemporary to the north-eastern culture of Rajasthan, but it was from the south-eastern part of Rajasthan. About eighty sites belonging to the cultural complex denoted by the first site have been discovered at Ahar, located on the river valleys of the Banas and Berak. This culture is thus named Ahar or Banas, and dates
range from around 2500 BCE to 1900 BCE. Three phases of culture are present at Ahar which happens to be the type site. From the very first phase we get copper objects (Chalcolithic). But it is noteworthy, that from period IB we get a few iron implements, and in period IC we get more iron implements, along with some signs of local manufacture of both copper and iron. This has aroused a lot of debate about the early emergence of iron metallurgy in the sub continent.
This cultural complex is also denoted by the use of rice. The stone tool repertoire, consists of food processing units like saddle querns, and semi precious stone beads.Bones of domesticated animals like cow, buffalo, sheep, goat and pig, have also been recovered from this site. All this seems to point toa complete culture which practised a mixed farming economy.
Balathal is another splendid Chalcolithic site, belonging to the Banas-Ahar complex. Both the sites of Balathal and Gilund are located in Udaipur district. Balathal is remarkable for the presence of a fortified enclosure. The fortification wall is built up on stone blocks packed with mud, and the four bastions at the four corners are clearly discernible. The earliest Chalcolithic phase is found outside this fortification wall, and it comprises of mud- brick dwellings, mud- plaster floors, and mud- plaster storage bins. But the later phases witnessed the development of larger rectangular habitation structures which were built of mud bricks,orstone bricks, on stone foundations. The complex is relatively large, about five hundred square metres, inside which there were three multi-roomed complexes, with separate spaces for kitchen and storage units. There is a road running inside the enclosure from a north-west to south-east direction, with a width of about 2 to 4.8 meters.Different types of pottery and semi-precious beads are among the artifacts found from Balathal.
The discoveries at Gilund were broadly similar to those at Ahar. The structural remains include a mud-brick complex, measuring about 30.48 x 24.38 metres, and a wall made of burnt bricks, resting on a foundation of stone rubble. Storage pits have also been found. Artifacts include microliths, fragments of copper, and beads of semi-precious stones. Terracotta figurines of animals like bulls have also been recovered.There is reason to believe that there was considerable contact between the cultures of the north-eastern and south eastern Rajasthan, as Ganeswar type of pottery has been found at Balathal.
It seems that Gilund was quite a self sustaining unit of village farming culture.
Rajasthan Chalcolithic sites were using a different kinds of raw materials, likecopper, bronze (copper mines were located nearby), as well as shell, terracotta, faience, and semi- precious stones like jasper, agate, carnelian and lapis lazuli. What is interesting is that the etched carnelian beads, and beads of lapis lazuli, recovered from the Rajasthan Chalcolithic sites, are typical of the Harappan culture. This serves to indicate that there might have been some kind of cultural connection with the Gujarat Harappan, and that the culture and the items had travelled from Gujarat, into the Rajasthan Chalcolithic complex.
This region has produced pottery of an astounding variety. Apart from red ware, tan ware, red and black ware and buff coloured ware, there was a different kind of reserve slip ware, with a thin red coloured decoration painted on it, and a very thick red slip with incised designs. Copper artifacts include choppers, razors, knives, chisels, arrowheads all made of copper, but direct evidence of copper smelting has not been detected. From the remains of animal bones we have enough evidence of domesticated animals including cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and pigs.Plant remains include wheat, barley, two types of millets, green and black gram, peas, and lentils.
Apart from these, there are other finds like semi precious stone beads, terracotta balls, grinders, hammer stones and stone querns.Ornaments include terracotta necklaces and bangles made of shell, copper and other kinds of stone.According to Dr.Dilip Chakrabarti, the variety of finds indicate that there existed a kind of craft specialization in this region.
Although there may not be much direct evidence available from the Rajasthan Chalcolithic sites about local metal smelting, copper slag, and fragments, at Ahar probably point to local smelting, and manufacture of copper objects. Given the array of copper objects that we find both from north-eastern, and south-eastern Rajasthan cultures, we can definitely put the Rajasthan Chalcolithic on the map of Indian prehistoric metal innovations.
Chalcolithic cultures in central India start with a cultural complex known as Kayatha after the type site, dateable to the late 3000 BCE.It lies on the Malwa plateau, which is rich and fertile, and is washed by various rivers such as the Narmada, Betwa,and Shipra. Parts of Malwa had close connections with Harappan Gujarat. But the exact Harappan cultural phase in Malwa is ill-defined and vague.