Gwyneth Owen-Jackson

Gwyneth Owen-Jackson

The Open University, School of Education, England

Paper Presented at the European Conference on Educational Research Ljubljana, Slovenia 17 - 20 September 1998

The Effect of Social and Political Change on Initial Primary Teacher Education

Proposition - that the recent political and social changes that have taken place in Bosnia have had an effect on the content of primary teacher education courses.

Purpose of the research - to find out Did changes occur?, if so

What changes took place

Who instigated the changes

Why, what was the rationale

Study site - Mostar, a town physically divided between Croatians, living in the west, and Bosnians, living in the east. Each part of the town now has its own university, these will be the site for each of the case studies undertaken.

Introduction

ÒIf you want to know what the state thinks, what is

important, all you have to do is look at the book for

the first grade in school, there you will see what is

important.Ó

(Quote from a Bosnian primary teacher, 1997)

Reflecting on this statement led me to think about how the changes which had taken place in the political scene in Bosnia, and the massive changes to the social structures and infrastructure, might have had an effect on Òwhat is importantÓ.

I then decided to undertake a formal study into the provision of teacher education in Bosnia. This is still in its early stages and what follows is a report of Ôwork-in-progressÕ.

Teacher education

Much work has been done which shows that, as well as transmitting knowledge, education is used to transmit values and attitudes, which enables societies to function. Moyles and Hargreaves (1998) in an international study of primary curricula wrote that Òmass schooling almost everywhere is clearly intended to be the dominant means of the intergenerational transmission of cultureÓ (p.4).

Researchers have also acknowledged the role that education can play in communities in transition. Arnhold (1996) states that ÒEducation for tolerance and reconciliation in ethnic and religiously divided communities is also an important aspect of democratisation.Ó (p.15). Hargreaves (1994) found that ÒIn addition to economic regeneration, teachers in many lands are also being expected to help rebuild national cultures and identities.Ó (p.5)

If this is accepted as being true, then what happens in teacher education must be of importance, as this will impact on what teachers say and do in the classroom which is transmitting the culture.

The importance of teacher education was described by Thompson (in Wilkin,1996), ÒTeacher education is fundamentally a political question. It is concerned with those aspects of society which should be selected for conscious transmission to those and by those who will initiate future generations.Ó (p.vii) Wilkin herself concludes that ÒEducation, including initial teacher education, is a particularly attractive target for government intervention because it appears to provide opportunities to influence the attitudes and beliefs of future generations, and because the education system makes a vital contribution to economic growth and developmentÓ (p.135)

However, she also believes that teacher education Òforms an occupational sub-culture...and like all cultures it is resistant to change, evolving slowly and demonstrating continuity over time.Ó (p.4) Pastuovic agrees that education evolves as a society evolves, but also believes that Ò Evolutionary social changes require innovations in education, so that the elements of the old and the new in education coexist. Radical social changes call for radical educational changes.Ó (p.408)

Other researchers (Taylor 1969; Althusser 1971; Popkewitz 1987; Tisher and Wideen 1990) have illustrated the point that schools and education are key elements in inducting young people into the norms, beliefs, attitudes and skills which are held to be important in their society and that, as society changes, the education system - and consequently the training of teachers - also needs to change. An example of this can currently be seen in what is happening in South Africa. Taylor considered the whole system of teacher training to be important - selection, training and certification. Popkewitz, however, focused mainly on the content, the curriculum of teacher training. This study will follow the Popkewitz view and focus mainly on content.

What is interesting about Bosnia is that the change was, in the main, unplanned, it did not evolve naturally. The political changes may have been foreseen but the pace with which they occurred was probably not. The social changes, the division of the population and the damage to the infrastructure, could not have been foreseen. The transition, therefore, was rapid and unexpected, so how has the country responded to this? This sociological enquiry was too big a task for my study, so I concentrated on how the countryÕs educational system has responded.

Research has been carried out in other countries which have undergone political change, for example Persianis (in Sharpes 1988) wrote about the changes in Cyprus following the Cypriot/Greek war, and the effects on education and teacher education. Poulton (1997) in his history of Macedonia, like Bosnia a former state of Yugoslavia, made several references to the role of education in establishing the language and culture of people staking claims for recognition as a nation. Cerych (1997) has written about Eastern European countries moving from communism to more democratic societies and Koucky (1996) described how education changed in countries moving away from communism. Work has also been carried out in other divided communities, for example in USA, Israel and Northern Ireland (Giliomee and Gagiano 1990; McAndrew and Lemire 1996). These have been drawn on to provide background information rather than any hypotheses.

It will be impossible within this study to consider all the factors which impinge on a society, to influence its values, beliefs and attitudes. What will be possible will be to look at how society in Mostar was structured and organised before the war and how it is structured and organised after. From this it will be possible to look at the structure and organisation of education pre- and post-war and, possibly therefore, make some assumptions about factors influencing change, and the responses to rapid and radical change.

Bosnia - itÕs historical context

The current situation in Bosnia is the result of itÕs history stretching back to pre-medieval times. Bearing this in mind, the more recent history is that Bosnia was a state within the federal constitution of Yugoslavia, a communist country led by Tito. When Tito died in 1980 the leadership passed to a collective presidency of the six states. This may partly explain the battle for political power among the states and a growth of nationalism. Concurrently, across Eastern Europe communism was in decline.

Along with others, Slovenia and Croatia, Bosnia declared itself an independent state in 1991. However, the population of Bosnia included large numbers of Serbians and Croatians, who began fighting for control of the areas in which they lived. These fights led to full-scale civil war which lasted for three years.

During the war, normal life was suspended. Families moved to live in basements, houses were damaged, gas, electricity and water supplies were erratic or non-existent, and moving around was very difficult.

There was much social damage done too. Communities which had previously been mixed populations - Bosnians, Croatians and Serbians - became divided. Families belonging to particular ethnic groups moved away from their own homes to areas populated by others of the same background, so that parts of the country became ÔSerbianÕ ÔCroatianÕ and ÔBosnianÕ, even though they were all in Bosnia.

In 1995, political agreements were signed and peace returned, but life did not return to its pre-war normality due to the physical, social and mental damage sustained. In fact, Dyker and Vejvoda (1996) said of the Dayton agreements that, ÒWhile (they) represent an important stage in the Bosnian conflict, they do not guarantee a durable cessation of hostilities They are more likely to lead to a definitive dismantling of Bosnian society than to its progressive reintegration.Ó (p.113)

Education in Bosnia

Pre-war, the education system in Bosnia was similar to that found in other European countries and, according to a report by The World Bank Group (1996), it was Òa well-developed education systemÓ.

Children began at school at five/six years old and underwent eight years of compulsory primary education. Schools and classes were mixed, with pupils of all ethnic backgrounds working together and receiving the same education. In lower primary they had one teacher for all lessons and studied timetabled lessons in Bosnian, mathematics, nature and society, music, art, physical education. In the 4th Class, a foreign language was introduced (English, French or Russian) and domestic work (cooking and clothing).

In upper primary there were different specialist teachers for each subject. They studied Bosnian, mathematics, a foreign language, nature, society, history, geography, biology, physics/chemistry, art, music, physical education.

There was no religious education in schools as, given their mixed population, it was considered potentially divisive.

At the end of each year there were tests in which pupils had to achieve a given level in order to proceed to the next class. If they failed they were able to take the test a second time, after the end of the school year (i.e. in their holiday time). If they failed a second time, they were sent to a Ôspecial schoolÕ.

After compulsory primary education, pupils could go on to secondary education if they wished. This could be the academic gymnasia, a more general technical school or a tradescrafts school, specialising in preparing young people for a specific area of work. Although pupils could choose the type of school they went on to they had to have sufficient ÔpointsÕ from their primary school tests for the school of their choice.

All schools followed a teaching programme issued by the government. This stated, by the month/week/lesson, what was to be taught, although teachers could decide how they would teach it. Schools were inspected by government-appointed commissioners to check that they were following the programmes.

Attendance at school was for a whole morning or afternoon session.

During the war, schools suffered the same disruption as every other institution. When buildings were damaged, where possible, other accommodation was taken over, for example, empty business premises or flats. Even these temporary buildings could only be used when teachers and pupils felt safe enough to venture out. The World Bank Group (ibid) reported that in 1992 school enrolment reduced by 50%. Qualified teachers were also difficult to find as they either left the country, became involved in the war or war-work, or were injured or killed. Lesson times were reduced from one hour/45 minutes to 30 minutes and pupils were given more homework.

Following the signing of the peace agreement, school buildings began to be repaired and the system began to function again as best it could. School classes were large however, and now consisted of single ethnic groups of pupils, and resources were limited

Teacher education in Bosnia

There were four universities in Bosnia, located in Sarajevo, Mostar, Tuzla and Zenica.

For teaching in primary schools, students must have attended the gymnasia. They then studied at the Pedagogica for two years. In the first year they studied the subject knowledge for all the subjects they would teach. In the second year they studied methodology, psychology, childrens literature and Bosnian language and literature. In addition, they observed teachers in schools and had to undertake observation of teachers in schools, lesson preparation and teaching practice.

Universities, like schools, were affected by the war. Buildings - including the materials and resources they contained - were damaged. Staff left, for the same reasons as teachers, causing a shortage of teaching staff and during 1992-1994 no university education was available.

The universities, too, are functioning again now and the purpose of this study will be to find out what changes, if any, have occurred in the teacher training courses as a result of - or to reflect - the changed social and political situation in which they now operate.

Research Methodology

Constraints

There are always constraints to be considered when selecting methodology. Here they included:

- limited resources, one researcher and a finite budget. This limited the study to only one town in Bosnia, known to me and manageable within these confines.

- differences in culture between researcher and participants. Vincent and Warren (1998) relate earlier work carried out on the relationships between professionals and clients, and the former's access to the 'structure of feeling' of the latter to the relationship between researcher and participant when 'structures of feeling' are not shared. 'Structure of feeling' is described as a combination of shared knowledge and understanding of history and place, belonging, beliefs and values, which affect an individual's attitudes and actions and allow members of a community to communicate and to understand each other . They consider how the match between researcher and respondent, the "disjunctions and connections" affect the process of data collection and analysis.

Although there exists a shared knowledge of education, and some knowledge on my part of the way of life in Bosnia, there is a difference in the background of myself and those involved, there is no 'structure of feeling' which we share. However, this is not necessarily the major problem it appears at first sight to be, as Mirza (in Vincent and Warren 1998) points out, each of us has an identity that is 'multi-layered' and complex and relationships may develop between individuals who, on the surface, appear to have nothing in common. Vincent and Warren (ibid) also raise the point that a close match, or symmetry, between researcher and respondent may not necessarily be an advantage. "It may mean that the one of the pair will assume what is known and understood between them, which may be counter-productive for the researcher's attempt to understand the respondent's subjectivity." (page 8). It can certainly be turned to advantage here, as my 'outsider' stance allows me to ask respondents to explain their situation and experiences in some detail. It is also easier for me to be outside the situation in the sense that I was not involved in any of the circumstances which led to recent events.

Other ways in which I have tried to overcome this constraint was in my preparation for the fieldwork. I read broadly and deeply about the history of Bosnia, so that I am more able to understand the context. I have made several visits to the country over a two-year period, before the fieldwork began, so I am familiar with the current situation. I have begun to learn the language, so I am able to show that I am interested in learning about and understanding the people, and I can communicate with them on a social level. I will use local people to help me interpret and understand the more technical conversations which will be part of the field work.

- co-operation of participants is needed. Talking to teachers will not prove difficult as several are already known to me and through these I am able to contact others. People seem keen to talk about their experiences and the time involved does not appear to be a problem for them. Access to university staff is currently being negotiated.

- timing of the research. Interviews will take place in late 1998/1999, four years after the ending of the war. There is some concern that the memories of participants will have faded, or will have changed due to the passage of time. There is also my concern not to raise unhappy or uncomfortable memories for people. This will be dealt with by sensitivity on my part, and by listening for consistency, both in individual participants stories and among all participants information.

After deciding on a qualitative approach and considering the constraints, an historical study and a case study approach were selected as being the most suitable. The two main reasons for this were the small numbers involved, two universities in one town, and the desire to gain an understanding of the context and process rather than just defining it. Miles and Huberman (1994) believe that qualitative data provides Òa source of well-grounded, rich descriptions and explanations of processes in identifiable local contexts. With qualitative data one can preserve chronological flow, see precisely which events led to which consequences, and derive fruitful explanationsÓ (p.1).

Within the qualitative framework, case study was decided to be the most appropriate approach. Yin (1984) describes case study as "an empirical enquiry that:

- investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when

- the boundaries between phenomena and context are not clearly evident; and in which

- multiple sources of evidence are used." (p. 23)

Also, he noted that, "...case studies are the preferred strategy when 'how' or 'why' questions are being posed, when the investigator has little control over events, and when the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon with some real life context" (p. 13), and that "...the distinctive need for case studies arises out of the desire to understand complex social phenomena" (p. 14). Stake (1995) gives support to this view, he writes that case study is useful when the focus of the case Ò...itself is of very special interest. We look for the detail of interaction with its contexts.Ó and ÒCase study is the study of the particularity and complexity of a single case, coming to understand its activity within important circumstances.Ó (p.xi). Bosnia certainly can be held to be of special interest and with important, individual circumstances. It is hoped that the study will draw out the details and complexity of the case in order to try and explain and understand it.