BACK TO BASICS
GRAMMAR REFERENCE
Use these notes to complete this module. If you have a grammar book please also use it.
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS - the assistants
Adjectives and adverbs make language more interesting. They allow us to express things in detail. What did it/they look like, how was it done?
Adjectives assist nouns and include words such as, big, small, beautiful. They also include colours, numbers and nationalities.
- What did the cake taste like?It was delicious cake.
- What colour was the car?It was metallic blue.
Compound adjectives:Hyphenated words which, when
skilfully used, can avoid an otherwise
lengthy description.
eg Twenty-year-old John ……..
A string of adjectives:
eg It was a wet windy night. If using three or more use a comma after all, except the last
eg It was a cold, wet, windy night.
Comparative adjectives:Regular: add 'er' eg old, older
Irregular: eg good, better
Superlative adjectives:Add 'est' or 'most' eg oldest, the most
beautiful.
Adverbs assist verbs
A verb tells us what is being or was/will be done and the adverb tells us how.
Most adverbs are adjectives + 'ly'. eg quickly - He ran quickly.
beautifully - She sang beautifully.
Not all adverbs end in 'ly'He ran as fast as he could
You will have to work hard to gain your
TEFL certificate.
SpellingWhen the adjective ends in 'y' change the 'y'
to 'i' and add '-ly' (exceptions shy, shyly; sly, slyly)
When the adjective ends in '-ly', the same
rule applies, sometimes with rather alarming
results, eg ugly becomes uglily. In such cases it's usually better to find another word or construction
Beware 'hopefully' is an adverb which is
frequently misused. Remember 'hopefully' does not mean 'I hope that' it means 'full of hope', so it is a complement to a verb. eg The inquisitive child searched the Internet hopefully.
How and well are adverbs.How do you do?
Very well, thank you.
Some words can be both an adjective and an adverb
How come?
It depends on the sentence. eg He drove a ‘fast’ car.
‘Fast’ describes the car (noun), therefore it is an adjective.
He drove the car ‘fast’.
This time ‘fast’ describes the manner in which he was driving (verb), therefore it is an adverb.
Adverbs can qualify adjectives
eg It was an extremely expensive restaurant.
Adverbs can qualify adverbs
eg He ran amazingly quickly to break the record.
Adverbs can be formed by adding '-ly' to the present/past participle
eg hurried(ly)supposed(ly)
undoubted(ly)joking(ly)
loving(ly)
Comparative adverbsmore quickly, more gently
Superlative adverbsmost quickly, most gently
SELF-CHECK: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
Find as many adjectives as you can to describe the weather.
Find as many adverbs as you can to describe someone's attempts at speaking another language.
Use an adjective and an adverb together to describe the weather.
Use two adverbs together to describe someone's attempts at speaking another language.
Unit 21Module 1
ARTICLES
The indefinite article - a/an
an is usedbefore a singular word/letter beginning with a vowel or vowel sound: an apple, an egg, an island, an opal, an umbrella, an Yves St Laurent dress, an e-mail, an F.A. Cup match
before a silent h: an hour; half an hour; an hour and a half
a is used before ALL consonants except silent h: a bank, a cow, a door, etc
before vowels which begin with the sound of a consonant: a unit, a university, a one-bedroomed flat
a/an is usedbefore a singular countable noun: I need a ticket for the concert.
It’s time you had a holiday.
before expressions of quantity: a lot of, a couple, a great many.
with certain numbers/fractions: a hundred, a thousand, a third
(one third is also acceptable)
before half, when half follows a whole number: one and a half kilos, a half-share.
when quoting a price: 5p a kilo, £1 a metre.
to mean ‘one’: Did you buy or rent a house? I bought one.
In exclamations before singular, countable nouns: Such an exciting match.
omit a/anbefore plural nouns
The definite article - the
the is usedWhen the object is unique or considered to be so: the earth, the equator.
Before a noun which has become definite as a result of being mentioned a second time: He scored a goal seconds before the final whistle. It was probably the most important goal of his career.
Before a noun made definite by the addition of a phrase or clause: The car in the showroom.
Before a noun which by reason of locality can represent only one thing: The boys are playing football in the park. Please set the video to record the Manchester United match.
Before superlatives: the best, the worst.
The + singular noun can represent a class of animals, people or things: The Giant Panda is close to extinction. The hotelier has suffered during the foot and mouth crisis. (not just one but many hoteliers throughout the country)
Before certain proper names: the Atlantic, the Netherlands, the Sahara; and names consisting of noun + of + noun: the Gulf of Mexico, the Tower of London.
When referring to a family: the Smiths (ie Mr & Mrs Smith and possibly their children as well)
Before Titles containing of: The Duke of Liverpool, The King of Spain.
Unit 21Module 1
USE OF CAPITALS
Whilst there are some rules for the employment of capitals, in many instances it is a matter of taste; but in all instances consistency is important.
Always start a sentence with a capital letter.
If the sentence starts with a number, write the number in words.
Initial capitals should be used for proper nouns eg The test will be held on the last Saturday in July. They are going to live in North Yorkshire. We use a capital N here because North Yorkshire is a specific place. If we are referring to an area in general do not use capital letters eg Cornwall is in the south-west of England.
Personal titles need a capital letter. Mrs Jones, His Grace the Duke of Tesolshire.
Key words in titles of publications, stage productions and musical works etc. ‘A Place in the Sun’, ‘Much Ado about Nothing’, ‘The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba’.
Names of buildings, organisations etc. The House of Commons, The British Broadcasting Corporation, Sir John Talbot’s Primary School.
Acronyms (words formed from either the initial letters of other words or a mixture of words and syllables) NATO, NUT, ROSPA, NIMBY.
Only write whole words in capitals if you are requested to, ie when completing a form you may be asked to ‘WRITE IN BLOCK CAPITALS’, or, if you wish to draw attention to something important, ‘NO SMOKING’, ‘DANGER’, ‘FIRE EXIT’.
Never write entirely in capitals. From the following short passage you will see that it is (a) difficult to read and (b) confusing.
WHEN SHE HAD COMPLETED HER UNIVERSITY COURSE SHE DECIDED TO APPLY FOR A JOB AS A TRAVEL CORRESPONDENT WITH THE BBC. SHE WAS ASKED TO ATTEND AN INTERVIEW AT 3PM ON THE FOLLOWING TUESDAY. THEY SENT HER DIRECTIONS PRINTED IN CAPITAL LETTERS THROUGHOUT. SHE PLACED THESE ON THE SEAT BESIDE HER AND TRIED TO GLANCE AT THEM EACH TIME SHE STOPPED AT TRAFFIC LIGHTS OR BECAUSE OF A HOLD-UP. UNFORTUNATELY, BEING A STRANGER TO THE LONDON AREA, SHE MANAGED TO GET INTO THE WRONG LANE OF THE M25 AND MISSED HER JUNCTION. SEVERAL DAYS AND SOME 1500 MILES LATER SHE COULD STILL BE SEEN DRIVING IN THE CLOCKWISE DIRECTION. SHE DIDN’T DARE STOP BECAUSE BY NOW HER ROAD TAX HAD EXPIRED. NEEDLESS TO SAY SHE DIDN’T GET THE JOB!
Unit 21Module 1
PUNCTUATION
Full stops, commas, colons, semi-colons, dashes, brackets (round) and [square], hyphens, question marks, exclamation marks, quotation marks (single and double).
Let's start with the easy ones
THE FULL STOP . (also known as 'period' or 'point').
It's used to
- indicate that a sentence has been completed
- denote an abbreviation, though the trend now is to omit the full stop.
Old methodNew method
Mr. and Mrs. Smith,Mr & Mrs Smith
12, New Rd.,12 New Rd
St. Ives,St Ives
Cornwall.Cornwall
4 a.m.4 am
It is still used when abbreviating days and months eg Mon. 10 Sept. However, unless space is limited, it is frowned upon to abbreviate in this way.
THE COMMA ,
Use
- When listing three or more items in a sentence. eg She won medals for swimming, riding and playing hockey.
- When merging two sentences with a conjunction. eg You can gain an INTESOL qualification not only by distance learning, but also by attending a two-week residential course.
- When adding words to the beginning or end of a sentence. eg Unquestionably, EFL teaching is a demanding but fun thing to do. eg We didn't have enough money for a taxi, so we walked instead.
- When inserting some non-essential component into a sentence. eg A German shepherd dog, also known as an Alsatian, won the top prize at Crufts.
- When introducing a quotation. eg As he hauled himself up from the hole in the pavement, the man was heard to say, "I'll sue the person who left that manhole cover off".
THE COLON :
Use
- When introducing a list which has been preceded by an independent clause.
eg Companies which participated in the event included: ASBC, DEF and XYZ.
- To separate the result from that which precedes it. The trains were often late and unreliable: he decided to look for a job nearer his home. The use of the colon brings home to the reader the seriousness of the situation.
THE SEMI-COLON ;
Somewhere between a full stop and a comma. It is used
- to indicate a slight break in a sentence. No one was able to complete the test; there was a misprint on the paper.
- when making lists such as invitees to an event. The guests included: Tom Smith, General Secretary; James Brown, Accountant; etc
THE DASH -
Used as
- a pause, when the dash separates a part of the sentence which has a strong connection with the other part of the sentence. It was not a daffodil - it was a narcissus, dancing in the breeze.
- an indication of parenthesis. A pair of dashes (or commas) separate a non-essential component. Brackets could do the same job.
- a link. If music be the food of love - W. Shakespeare.
THE HYPHEN -
Used to
- link separate words to make one compound word.
orange-box, without the hyphen this would mean an orange-coloured box.
paper-fastener, without it would mean a fastener made of paper.
- to form an adjective. well-dressed, 250-volt. Shakespeare's 'lily-liver'd loon'.
QUOTATION MARKS ' "
Single and double. Modern practice is to use single marks for all quotations unless there is a quotation within a quotation.
THE EXCLAMATION MARK !
Limit its use to exclamatory sentences and phrases. Get out! What a beautiful baby!
THE QUESTION MARK ?
The only real problem here is not using it when it is required or using it when it is not needed.
Will you please complete the enclosed application form?
I wonder if you could call into this office next week. This is not a question it's a statement.
BRACKETS (round) [square]
Round brackets enclose a word, clause or phrase inserted in a sentence which is grammatically complete without it.
The students (from all parts of the world) who study with INTESOL have to work very hard to gain their qualification.
Square brackets are generally used to enclose something extra, by way of explanation, but not part of the sentence. eg I walk [verb] to work each day.
Unit 21Module 1
THE APOSTROPHE
Who would believe that such a little mark could be so universally misunderstood. Indeed it is probably the most misunderstood and frequently misused punctuation mark in the English language.
It really is quite simple.
Providing it is well taught, students should rarely have a problem with its use. To someone who knows how to use it, its misuse can prove to be cause for real irritation and concern. So here goes, let's make sure that in future everyone who learns English becomes an expert in the use of the apostrophe. Many people live in fear and dread of the apostrophe and either pretend it doesn't exist, or liberally splatter the page with apostrophes on every 's'. However, to use the apostrophe incorrectly is more of a crime than not to use one at all.
If in doubt leave it out
When you know, let it show.
IT'S USED TO
show that something has been omitted
Hello, I'm Jack, what's your name? The 'a' in 'am' has been substituted by an apostrophe, also the 'i' in 'is'.
I'd = I hadyou've = you havedon't = do not
Mornin'thro'
We're going to the cinema. Who'd like to join us?
indicate ownership
The dog owned by Jane won the 'Best of Breed' at Crufts.
Becomes
Jane's dog won ……..
This is fairly straightforward; the apostrophe shows that Jane owns the dog.
What happens if the name of the person who owns the dog ends in 's', eg. James or Phyllis?
This would becomeJames's dog or Phyllis's dog
Even though this is grammatically correct, it is more usual to omit the final 's' and simply put the apostrophe at the end of the name; this automatically indicates possession.
James' dog won …….. Phyllis' dog won ………….
singular and plural
Mr Jones and Mrs Jones = The Joneses (this indicates more than one, nothing has been omitted and as yet we have not mentioned anything belonging to them). However, if we discuss the car belonging to Mr and Mrs Jones
this becomes
The Jones's car or The Jones' car.
One cake, ten cakes - it doesn’t matter how many there are, an apostrophe is not required. However as soon as something belongs to the cake an apostrophe is required eg The cake's stand was almost a metre high.
NB Please note that ‘its’ showing ownership does not follow the apostrophe rule.
eg The gate creaked on its hinges.
SELF-CHECK:
THE USE OF CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION AND THE APOSTROPHE
Read through the following passage and make the necessary corrections. Look out for the misuse of capital letters and punctuation; apostrophes either left out or put in the wrong place and there may be the odd spelling error and grammatical error lurking around somewhere. See how many you can find. Thirty-seven = excellent, below thirty = more revision!
Cheshires Deep South – Its Worth a Visit!
south Cheshire is an area of fasinating contrast’s and great beauty, It is renowned for it’s Cheese, picturesque black and white ‘magpie’ houses, Pastoral Countryside and canals.
It is regarded as one of the finest diary farming areas’ in the country and has more cow’s to the acre than anywhere else in the World.
Most of the famous cheshire cheese is now made in creamery’s, but some farms are still producing the top qwality ‘Farmhouse’ cheese.
From any vantage point, on the Peckforton and bickerton Hills, the impression over the surrounding countryside is of an endless patchwork quilt of hedges and fields’ with small copse’s and hedgerow trees. on a Sunny day, hundreds of ponds (many of them old marl pits) glint and shine, Well-managed hedges and ponds are excellent habitat’s for Wild flowers and Birds.
The Town of nantwich as much to offer architecturally and historically. The parish Church is known has the “cathedral of South Cheshire”. Nantwich museum brings together various aspects, of the towns history an gives fascinating glimpses of the life of people though the years. There are also a permanent display of cheese making once a major industry on local farms:
SELF-CHECK:
THE USE OF CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION AND THE APOSTROPHE
CORRECT VERSION
Cheshire’s Deep South – It’s Worth a Visit!
South Cheshire is an area of fascinating contrasts and great beauty. It is renowned for its cheese, picturesque black and white ‘magpie’ houses, pastoral countryside and canals.
It is regarded as one of the finest dairy farming areas in the country and has more cows to the acre than anywhere else in the world.
Most of the famous Cheshire cheese is now made in creameries, but some farms are still producing the top quality ‘Farmhouse’ cheese.
From any vantage point (no comma here) on the Peckforton and Bickerton Hills, the impression over the surrounding countryside is of an endless patchwork quilt of hedges and fields with small copses and hedgerow trees. On a sunny day, hundreds of ponds (many of them old marl pits)
glint and shine. Well-managed hedges and ponds are excellent habitats for wild flowers and birds.
The town of Nantwich has much to offer architecturally and historically. The parish church is known as the “cathedral of South Cheshire”. Nantwich Museum brings together various aspects (no comma here) of the town’s history and gives fascinating glimpses of the life of people through the years. There is also a permanent display of cheese making, once a major industry on local farms.
Unit 21Module 1
COUNT AND MASS NOUNS
Also known as countable and uncountable/non-count nouns
Nouns are things - animate or inanimate, real or
imaginary, visible or invisible.
Proper nouns are names of people, places and trade names etc.
Countable nounsare things which can be singular or plural. In the
singular the noun must be preceded by an article.
eg I have a cat.I bought a house.
But in the plural this becomes:-
I have two cats.I sell houses for a living.
Mass (uncountable/Something which is always singular, irrespective of
non-count nouns)quantity.
eg bread, air, petrol.
Serve on a slice of bread.
Use two slices of bread.
Abstract nounsWords such as, information, hope, fear.
These are generally regarded as uncountable.
eg He set out with boots on his feet, hope in his
heart and an almighty great rucksack on his back..
But not always.
eg Carrying a great rucksack like that one wonders
whether his hopes of crossing the USA on foot will
be achieved.