General Administration
EDHE 6710
Qualifying Exams Review
Objectives of the course:
Objective 1: To become familiar with the current body of scholarly literature and research on the administration, governance, and leadership of institutions of higher education.
Books
● Mission of the University, Jose Ortega y Gasset
The mission of the University is to impart higher education to everyone. Higher education is constituted of 1) transmission of culture, 2) teaching the professions, 3) scientific research and training of new scientists. Transmission of culture is the most important of these three because it is a basic function of the university. The university’s primary mission is a cultured people, no false pretense, realistic goals, excellent pedagogy and high teaching standards.
● How Colleges Work The Cybernetics of Academic Organization and Leadership, Robert Birnbaum
This is a great book on leadership and administration in higher education. Birmbaum describes the different organizational structures of higher education. They are: collegial, bureaucratic, political, and anarchical institutions.
Birmbaum also talks about tightly coupled verses loosely coupled organizations, which correlate to one or more of the above cultures. Each of these cultures is either more or less tightly or loosely coupled.
● ASHE Reader on Organization and Governance in Higher Education, Peterson
The ASHE Reader offers a host of articles written by experts in the following areas: organization and theory models, governance and management processes and leadership prospective.
● Management Fad in Higher Education: Where they come from, what they do and why they fail, Birnbaum.
A book about the management fads in Higher Education: where they originate, why they are adopted, what their consequences are for academic institutions and educational enterprise and how they can be made more helpful. Birmbaum does not use the term “fad” critically, but to describe the dynamic.
● The Four Cultures of the Academy, Bergquist
In a manner similar to Birnbaum, Bergquist identifies four cultures of the academy: collegial, managerial, development and negotiating. He addresses the practical questions of how to live and work in these cultures as well as how to improve them and foster organizational change and innovation with them. Bergquist borrows from the field of anthropology, which emphasizes the importance of understanding a culture in order to understand its system of meaning and how to function within it.
● A Guide for New Planners, The Society for College and University Planning
This book takes a practical approach to short-long range and strategic planning, and how the two categories of planning interface. It provides a brief lit review of the field of planning. Also offers a practical insight on what does and does not work in the field of higher education in regards to planning.
● Strategic Planning for Public and Nonprofit Organizations, John Bryson
A classic in the field of strategic planning for nonprofit organizations. Bryson provides an understanding of the dynamics of strategic planning, identifies key steps in using the strategy change cycle to think and act strategically, talks about how to manage to the process of strategic planning, and provides tips on how to get started with strategic planning.
● ASHE Reader on Finance in Higher Education- Breneman, Leslie & Anderson
This ASHE reader provides classic and contemporary articles on finance in higher education which looks at the financial needs of institutions, the trends that affect higher education, the issue of financing a student, state budgets and policies, federal programs, and public attitudes. Also discusses the financial management of higher education.
BOOKS- General Leadership & Governance Issues
● Achieving Educational Excellence- Alexander Astin
Astin’s work is a book about educational equality: what it means, how it is measured, and how it can be improved. He does not feel our traditional beliefs about excellence or quality in American higher education serves us well. Quality education focuses on the development of the human talent, expanding educational opportunities, rewarding good teaching, involving students and developing their talents.
● How college affects Students- Pascarella & Terenzini
This book represents groundbreaking research on how college affects students. Using multiple regression, the authors examine the affects of college on students on the cognitive, social, psychosocial, affective, moral, educational, professional and quality-of-life areas of students. The authors conclude that after confounding affects of family background are accounted for that there are three avenues of college life that most influence a student in the above areas: peer relationships, student involvement, and student/ faculty interaction. Size, type and location of institution had little to no effect on the areas under investigation.
● Higher Learning in America- Arthur Levine
A general educational account to current societal trends relative to students entering institutions and society in general. Liberal education is less affected by societal changes and relies on the lessons of the past
● The Meaning of General Education- Gary Miller
General education that focuses on problem solving, the acquisition of skills and abilities, and believes it is concrete. Liberal education is abstract, focuses on process of learning and not necessarily the content.
● Academic Duty- Donald Kennedy
An institution can operate with unclear rules and expectations about their duties. This book focuses on the author’s life experience of teaching at research institution for 35 years.
● North Toward Home, Willie Morris
This autobiography describes the struggles of a southern boy at the University of Texas at Austin through his pledging a fraternity, his roommate conflicts and becoming the editor of the school newspaper. This book was before its time since it occurred in the 1950’s and much of the revolution on college campuses occurred in the 60’s and 70’s. Morris stood up for his beliefs and questioned authority.
● Scholarship Assessed: Evaluation of the Professoriate- Boyer
Argues that Higher education is to meet its full range of responsibility the concept of scholarship must be broadened to include not only basic research but other kinds of intellectual work in which faculty engage. Four types of scholarship are proposed: discovery (basic research, traditional), integration (textbooks and review of lit), application (professional service & outreach) and teaching.
● The AmericanCollege & University- Fredrick Rudolph
Contains a history of higher education
● Understanding John Dewey- James Campbell
This is a summary of John Dewey’s theory of education. His ultimate goal was to produce adults capable of sound judgments, realistic view of education with a strong emphasis on democratic role of education
● Eliminating Professors: A guide to the Dismissal Process- Kenneth Westhues
Discusses elimination process for institutions to take in getting rid of unwanted professors. Used 25 actual cases of elimination from across the nation and wrote book while he was waiting to hear if he was being dismissed from his position.
● The State Universities and Democracy- Allan Nevins
This book discusses the four stages of development of state and land grant institutions.
● Higher Learning in America 1980-2000- Arthur Levine
This book examines the trends of the 1990’s in regards to Higher Education. HE environments, types of institutions, constituencies of college and university communities, curriculum and educational programs, critical issues facing Higher Education today.
● Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate- E. Boyer
If Higher Ed is to meet its full range of responsibilities the concept of scholarship must be broadened to include not only basic research but other kinds of intellectual work which faculty engage. Four types of scholarship proposed: scholarship of discovery, of integration, of application and of training.
● Teachers as Scholars- K. P. Cross
Teaching is one of the most challenging aspects of college faculty job. Growing research about student learning, improvement depends on focus from character of teacher to interaction between teaching and learning. Work on classroom assessment and research provides tools for this kind of study.
● The American Community College- Cohen & Brawer
Discusses the government of Community Colleges, the services they offer to business and community and the important resources they offer and receive.
● The Great Transformation in Higher Education, 1960- 1980. The uses of the university. Troubled times for American higher education the 1990’s and beyond- Clark Kerr.
JOURNALS IN HIGHER EDUCATION
● Research on Higher Education- publishes articles and research from all different aspects of higher education usually quantitative in nature.
● Journal of Higher Education- publishes journal similar to Research in Higher Education
● Change- Examines and reports on contemporary trends, issues and challenges facing higher education
● AAHE (American Association for Higher Education) Bulletin- Similar to Change, although it focuses on classroom as well as institutional issues
● Chronicle of Higher Education- Similar to AAHE, except on a more frequent publication time table. Newspaper of HE.
Objective 2: To identify the major management and leadership theories that apply to organizations and relate them to institutions of higher education.
Theories of Leadership
Trait theory-
Identify specific characteristics that are believed to contribute to a person’s ability to assume and successfully function in a leadership position.
Power and influence theory-
Attempt to understand leadership in terms of the source and amount of power available to leaders and the manner in which leaders exercise influence over followers through either unilateral or reciprocal interactions with them.
Behavioral theories-
Study of leadership by examining activity patterns, managerial roles, and behavioral categories (what leaders actually does).
Contingency theories-
Emphasize the importance of situational factors such as the nature of the task or the external environment in understanding effective leadership.
Symbolic and cultural theories-
Assume that leadership is a social attribution that permits people to cognitively connect outcomes to causes and thereby make sense of an equivocal, fluid, and complex world. Role of the leader may be more symbolic than real. In higher education, administrative leadership may be in part a product of social attributions. We have a faith in the potential if not the actual efficacy of people identified as leaders. This allows us to simplify and make sense of complex organizational processes that would otherwise be impossible to comprehend.
Social Exchange Theory (suited to Higher Education)-
There is a reciprocal relationship whereby leaders provide needed services to a group in exchange for the group’s approval and compliance with the leader’s demands. In this theory, leaders are as dependent on the followers as the followers are on the leaders.
Types of Leaders
Transactional Leader-
-meets the needs of the followers and emphasizes the means.
-Effectiveness depends upon fulfilling the expectations of the followers
-Maintains status quo
Transformational Leader-
-emphasizes ends and taps the motivation of followers to lead them to new and better values in the support of intended change
-effectiveness depends upon the changing the expectation of the followers*
-metamorphosis and organization
Role of Leaders
Visionary- effective leaders know how to dream. They learn from the past, adjust to the present and anticipate the future. They have the ability to take things as they are and envision them as they could be.
Communicator- successful leaders are able to clearly communicate. This involves knowledge, wisdom, verbal and listening skills.
Innovator- the creative application of a vision to reality. This involves the use of an active imagination, the ability to question, openness to new ideas and the willingness to take risks.
Teacher- The transfer of knowledge and wisdom. Imparting truth to others out of the overflow of a running stream.
Motivator- Good leaders encourage others to realize their fullest potential. Modeling behaviors to emulate.
Helper- Being concerned for the welfare of others. Viewing oneself as part of team.
Manager- Utilizing skills in decision making and problem solving and possessing people skills
Decision Making &Governance / Bureaucratic / Collegial / Political
Assumptions about structure / Hierarchical bureaucracy / Community of peers / Fragmented, complex
Professional federation
Social / Unitary, integrated by formal system / Unitary, integrated by peer consensus / Pluralistic, encompasses different interests groups with divergent values
Basic Theoretical Foundations / Weberian bureaucracy, classic studies of formal systems / Professionalism literature, human relations approach to organization / Conflict analysis, interest group theory, community power literature
View of decision making process / “Rational” decision making, standard operating procedure / Shared collegial decision making: consensus, community participation / Negotiation, bargaining, political brokerage, external influence
Cycle of decision making / Problem definition: search for alternatives, evaluation of alternatives, choice and implementation / As in bureaucratic model, but also stresses the involvement of professional peers in the process / Emergence of issues out of social context, interest articulation, conflict, legislative process, implementation of policy, feedback
Leadership & Management
Basic leadership image / Hero Technical / “First among equals” / Statesman Political
Leadership Skills / Problem solving skills / Interpersonal Dynamics / Strategy, interpersonal dynamics, coalition management
Management Expectation / “Scientific Measurement” People believe the hero-leader can solve problems and hero tries to play the role / Management by Consensus
Leader is developer of consensus among professionals / Strategic Decision Making Leader marshals political action, but is constrained by the counter efforts of other groups.
Types of Institutions
Collegial / Political / Bureaucratic / AnarchicalCharacteristics / Small, liberal arts / Regional, state institutions / 2 year institutions
(Military) / National universities
Faculty/ Student Relationships / Need faculty/ student interaction / Lot of councils
“Emerging Universities” / People are replaceable. Lots of rules and regulations. Little interaction with students / Value individual accomplishments of faculty, staff and students.
Stress/ Motivation / Human Beings
Faculty become very involved in life outside class / Everyone has a voice- people identify with groups / Little interest in people. Rather deal with facts and statistics. Data driven / Research- lack of rules; star faculty, international travel, research, patents
Management / Collective leadership / Board of Trustees
Administrative Chain of command / Trash can management
- board of trustees & alumni strong
Shared power between faculty & administration / - several coalitions and coordination through conflict
Diversity / -formal division of labor
-embedded in local and state gov. / -creation of knowledge
-free expression of ideas
-diversity
-no set pattern
President’s Role / First among equals / Major leadership but democratic community / Loses “hero” leader- new leader has to win over rest of followers & consolidate power / To protect and defend from external things
Multifaceted missions. Faculty have deep roots in community / Standard Operating Procedure & Very Predictable / Big athletics program
Value tradition / Process of becoming but never become / Task oriented with defined goals.
Little socialization / Symbols are important/ pomp and circumstance/ library is center
Large number of institutions / 2 year institutions (but not all the time) / Fewest in number
Baylor University / UT Arlington / Princeton
OBJECTIVE 3- To know and understand the implications of the major structural models of institutions of higher education.
Systems of coupling
Definition- an organized whole that has two or more independent parts or subsystems and is separated from its environment by a boundary.
Closed System-
-rigid and impenetrable boundaries that limit the kind of interaction that can take place with the environment.
-Inputs are complex and may consist of people, ideas, tangible resources, or involvement with other institutions or resources.
-Outputs return to the environment where they may again become inputs
-Dynamic and nonlinear; system parts constantly change as they interact with themselves and the environment
-Evolves over time
Coupling-
-the connection between subsystems and elements within the system
Tight coupling (input = output)
-changes in one element of the system usually produce directly responsive changes in another.
-Deterministic- future states can be accurately predicted if there is a knowledge of the present state and the forces that will act on it.
-Likely to have many common variables that are important to the subsystem
Loose coupling (input may = output)
-elements of the system are responsive to each other, but they preserve their own identities and some logical separateness.
-Probabilistic- future state cannot or the consequences of decisions cannot be predicted with certainty.
-Connections between subsystems may be infrequent, circumscribed, weak in their mutual effects, unimportant, or slow to respond.
In general loose coupling makes the coordination of activities problematic and makes it difficult to use administrative processes to effect change. However, there are benefits to loose coupling: having independent and specialized organizational elements 1) increases an institutions sensitivity to its environment 2) allows for the sealing off of ineffective components so failures remain localized. Loose coupling, therefore can be considered as an adaptive device essential to an open system.
Baier on loose coupling-
-loosely coupled organizations are looking to be stable
-it is difficult to change from within loosely coupled organization
-Departments attempt to create solid exterior making the organization safe from change.
OBJECTIVE 4- To know and understand the major internal and external forces and issues related to the administration and governance of colleges and universities.
Problems of Organization
- Dualism of Controls-
-two structures existing in parallel: 1) the conventional administrative hierarchy, & 2) the structure through which faculty make decisions
-Neither system has consistent patterns of structure or delegation
-Mutual disagreement regarding systems of authority: 1) administrative is based on control and coordination of activities by superiors & 2) faculty (professional) is based on autonomy and individual knowledge
- Mission and Management-
-institutions simultaneously embrace a large number of goals
-no single organizational design can optimize all legitimate organizational interests
- Power, compliance & control
-power is the ability to produce intended change in others