Gender Development: Revision Sheet (December 09)
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Concepts
Sex and gender
• Sex refers to biological status as either male or female. It is defined by our chromosomes.
• Gender refers to the social role and cultural attributes associated with masculinity and femininity.
• Gender can change, sex does not
Androgyny
• Androgyny is used to describe an individual who possesses a balance of masculine and feminine traits, attitudes, values, emotions and behaviours.
• Masculine: forceful, aggressive, independent
• Feminine: warm, affectionate, gentle
• Neutral: friendly, theatrical
• e.g. a man may be forceful within his work-role, but also empathic and caring as a father.
• e.g. a female may be affectionate and caring as a mother, but also forceful and ambitious within her work-role
• (Note: androgyny does not refer to biological traits such as anatomy / genitalia)
• Androgyny can be measured using the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)
Evaluation
• Psychological health
– Bem suggested that people with high androgyny scores are more psychologically healthy than those who show more conventionally differentiated male and female traits.
• However BSRI reduces complex concept of masculinity and femininity to simple score – may be oversimplification.
• Cultural biased view of masculinity and femininity – based on traits of American students in 1970s.
• Good test retest reliability.
Sex role stereotypes
· Sex-role stereotype a belief about what is considered appropriate and typical behaviour for males and females. It is an oversimplified, general attitude of how males and females are expected to behave.
• Masculine role – e.g. father, financial provider of the family. Responsible for practical jobs, making important decisions. Tough and aggressive. Independent. Better at driving, good at DIY.
• Feminine role – e.g. mother, caring for children, manage household, do housework, take care of sick relatives. Kind, considerate, caring, affectionate, gentle, sympathetic. Can not read maps.
Cultural variations in gender related behaviour
• Cross-cultural research is a method of investigation where two or more cultures are investigated for the purpose of comparison to consider the universality of gender roles.
• Cross-cultural research involves studying different cultures.
• The research often features observation; the same type of behaviour, eg parenting is compared in two or more different cultures.
• If behaviour is found to be similar across cultures then this leads psychologists to conclude that differences in behaviour are biologically based.
• However, if behaviour is found to be different across cultures, then psychologists may conclude that these behaviours are nurtured by the environment.
• Strength: Useful as it contributes to the nature-nurture debate in psychology. importance of discovering innate, universal gender behaviours; comparison to Western culture allows for a greater understanding of cultural diversity
• Limitation: Researchers may misinterpret an action during their observations. This may be due to the researchers own cultural biases which produce expectations and therefore alter what is .observed. Ethical issues: For example, Mead may be criticised in terms of invasion of privacy and cultural bias.
Margaret Read (1935)
• Lived with a number of different tribes and observed gender behaviour.
• Concluded that gender is culturally determined.
La Fromboise et al. (1990)
• Studied American Indians
• Gender roles different than in traditional western society
• e.g. warrior women
• Men are not exclusively the aggressors in all societies
Buss (1994)
– Investigated what men and women look for in a partner
– Carried out in 37 countries
– Found many similarities across cultures
– Men rate good looks, youth, chastity higher than women did (believed to be good signs of female fertility)
– Women rated good financial prospects, and dependability higher than men did (women are believed to look for qualities in men that means they will provide for them)
– Suggests that these universal similarities in gender behaviour are biologically based.
Nature and nurture
• Nature refers to the belief that gender differences are innate and are determined by biological factors such as hormonal and genetic factors.
• Nurture refers to the idea that gender differences are a result of social and cultural factors – the environment. For example they are learned and a result of social learning.
• e.g. Billy thinks he is good at football because of nature - he is a boy. However, Sadie thinks Billy is good at football because he goes to football training every Saturday morning - nurture.
• e.g. Hayley thinks Joe is very good at mending cars as a result of nature – he is a boy/male. However, Joe may have acquired his ability to mend cars as a result of nurture – the acquisition of the skill.
Gender: Biological Explanations
Main assumption:
• Any differences in behaviour is due to biological factors such as genetics (chromosomal differences), hormones (testosterone, oestrogen), brain structure (SDN).
Typical and atypical sex chromosomes
Typical sex chromosome pattern
• Males XY
• Females XX
Atypical sex-chromosome patterns
• By studying atypical sex chromosome combinations it allows us to draw some conclusions about the role of biology and chromosomes in gender development.
• Chromosomal abnormalities do have an effect on behaviours (via the effect of hormones).
• The affected behaviours are often related to gender for example spatial skills, verbal skills, ambition.
• Demonstrates a strong association between chromosomes, hormones and gender development.
• Hormones are believed to affect the brain development before birth, and to affect behaviour after birth.
So Chromosomal abnormalities do have an effect on behaviours (via the effect of hormones).
Hormones
• Hormones are chemical substances, secreted by glands. Travel around the body in the blood.
• Male hormones known as androgens (e.g. testosterone). Female ones are mainly oestrogens.
• Sex hormones have obvious physical effects. What are the psychological effects?
Effects of hormones - Pre-birth
• 5th month of foetal development – gonads secrete testosterone à male sex organs.
• à affects brain development – SDN, and the cerebral hemispheres
• à males better at spatial tasks, more aggressive.
Evidence to support
• Condition called CAH – too much testosterone for female foetus
• à Child more likely to develop as a “tomboy” – be more aggressive, and have better spatial skills
• Animal studies – pregnant rats injected with testosterone à more aggressive offspring.
• Animal studies - Role of testosterone
– Male rats more aggressive than female
– Castrated males show reduced aggression
– Male-male aggression greater at puberty when male hormones are secreted.
– Aggression increases with injections of testosterone (even if it is female rats that are injected)
Studies
§ Dabbs et al. (1995) , Tricker et al. (1996)
Studies which show the importance of biology in gender development
• Batista boys (guevodoces)
• Intersex children
• Dr. Money, “theory of neutrality”,
• Bruce / Brenda / David Reimer case study
• Gorski et al. (1978) brains of male and female rats sexually dimorphic nucleus (SDN)?
• When does the SDN develop? What causes it to develop?
Biological explanation Evaluation
• Lots of evidence to support link between bio factors and gender.
– However much of this research is on animals – which may not be correct to generalised to humans.
– Humans that are studied are often unusual cases which may not represent typical GD
• Too simplistic – Social factors are also important.
– Does not explain on its own why different cultures have different types of gender behaviour
• Reductionist
– explaining complex gender behaviours in terms of hormones and chromosomes.
• Deterministic
– claims we have no choice in how we think about our gender, but our behaviour is merely determined by our biology
Gender: Social Learning Theory (SLT)
imitation, reinforcement, identification, modelling
AO1
• Most behaviour is learnt as a result of observation.
• Imitation
– Copying behaviour
– The most efficient way of learning complex behaviours
– usually refers to a single behaviour
• Reinforcement: The process by which a response is strengthened. Gender role identity is learned through reinforcement and modelling, where a child is rewarded for sex-appropriate behaviour and punished for inappropriate behaviour
– Observed behaviour is more likely to be repeated if it is seen to be rewarding
• Direct reinforcement – rewarded for copying
• Vicarious reinforcement – see someone else rewarded for behaviour
• There are differences in the types of behaviour reinforced for boys and girls.
• Fagot (1978) tested this idea
• Are male and female toddlers treated differently
• Girls reinforced for dressing up
• Boys discouraged from playing with dolls
• Do parents treat male and female toddlers differently?
• 24 toddlers, 20-24 months
• Record reinforcement & punishment.
• Identification: Identification refers to taking on the behaviour of a role model. Occurs with another person (the model) and involves taking on observed behaviours, values, beliefs and attitudes of the person with whom you are identifying.
– A child sees him or herself as similar to a specific person and aspires to be like them
• Modelling: A procedure whereby a person observes another person and then attempts to imitate his or her behaviour. Gender role behaviour is learned indirectly through modelling of parents, stereotypes and the media.
– Modelling refers to behaviour which is observed, and, having been observed, can be repeated and imitated.
– Most likely to model the behaviour of same-sex models
· e.g. Holly is six years old. One Saturday she goes to play with her friend Sally, at Sally’s house. Holly notices how Sally helps her mother with the cooking. When she does, Sally’s mother praises her. When Holly returns home, she helps her mother with the cooking. Referring to features of social learning theory, explain why Holly helps her mother with the cooking.
· Observation – Holly notices how Sally helps her mother with the cooking and is praised for it.
· Modelling – Holly sees Sally’s mother as a role model
· Imitation – Holly copies Sally’s behaviour by helping her mother with the cooking.
· Vicarious reinforcement – Holly learns that if she helps her mother with the cooking, then she too will be rewarded.
AO2
Evidence
Fagot – reinforcement (see above)
Perry & Bussey (1979)
• Children copy the behaviour of their own sex
• Changes in the development of gender understanding with age.
• Criticise study – unrealistic – adults playing with toys.
Masters et al. (1979)
• Children between 4 and 5 years old shown gender neutral toys.
• Told they were either boys toys or girls toys.
• Then watched a video of either a boy or girl playing with the toy.
• How the toy was labelled was more influential than gender of model playing with toy
Evaluation of Evidence
• Experiments often are lacking in ecological validity.
– Use adult models playing with toys or pretending in one context or another.
– So not true to real life.
• Ethical issues
– psychological well-being,
• ethical implications of exposure to stereotypical behaviour which may lead individuals to perceive themselves and/or others in a negative way.
Positive
• Lots of evidence to support the theory.
– Boys and girls are reinforced differently
– Children do model behaviour of others
• Can explain cross-cultural differences in gender.
• Links with cognitive explanations – explains how differences in thinking between boys and girls can be caused
• SLT – identification can often be used to explain why people exhibit behaviours usually associated with the opposite sex
Negatives
• Does not explain why gender development changes with age.
• Does not explain the development of new trends in gender related behaviour. e.g. “new men”.
• Neglects role of biological factors.
– Does not take account of genetic influences. The biological theory states that gender is innate
• Challenged by the psychoanalytic theory which states that society plays no particular role beyond the behaviour of the parents.
• Does not account for differences which exist between children of the same sex who have been raised in the same household;
– See John Barrowman documentary clip (part 4, 3 mins)
• Does not account for changes in the development of gender understanding with age.
Link with other theories
• For example, the cognitive approach offers some middle-ground to the social learning theory in stating that aspects of society can be an important feature in providing information which then can be incorporated into the gender schema.
• However, the psychoanalytic theory states that society plays no particular role beyond the behaviour of the parents.
• Candidates may further provide discussion relating to the biological theory which states that gender is innate and universal, society plays no role in the acquisition of gender identity.
Gender: Cognitive
AO1
Kohlberg theory – identity, stability, constancy
Gender schema theory
• Kohlberg proposed a stage theory of gender development.
1. gender identity; A child is able to label his/her own sex correctly and to identify other people as boys or girls.
· e.g. “My name is Rashid and I am a boy.”
2. gender stability; A child understands that people stay the same sex throughout life.
· e.g. “My name is Katy and when I grow up, I am going to be a mummy.”
3. gender constancy; A child understands that someone stays the same biological sex even though he/she may change in appearance,
· e.g. by wearing different clothes, or a child understands that although a girl who has short hair and wears trousers may look like a boy, she is really still a girl.
· “Even though my brother has long hair, I know that he is still a boy.”
• e.g. Sarah, who is two years old, was playing dressing-up games with her older sister Mary. Mary put on a pair of trousers. Sarah said, “We’re both girls, so you can’t wear those because it will make you into a boy.” Mary, who is six years old, replied, “No it won’t. You can’t change into a boy just like that.”