Fact sheet #7 : Australia’s Antarctic Involvement
Australia's long history of involvement in Antarctica has its foundations in the 18th century when Australia depended on the sea for its trade and communications, and was conscious of the vast unknown region that lay close to the south. Because of this proximity it was inevitable that Australia became closely involved in Antarctic exploration.
The sailing vessels upon which the colonies depended for their supplies and trade with Europe followed the Great Circle routes south of the Cape of Good Hope and sought the favourable westerly winds found well to the south. These voyages brought familiarity with the high latitudes, but were not without risk - in the second year of settlement HMS Guardian was almost lost after striking an iceberg.
From the first days of colonisation in 1788, Australia was closely associated with sealing and whaling industries. These industries rapidly assumed commercial importance but, as Australian waters became exhausted, the attention of sealers and whalers turned inevitably to the subantarctic islands. By 1820, just ten years after the discovery of Macquarie Island, the fur seal had been virtually exterminated and elephant seals were being slaughtered for their oil.
Over-exploitation around Australia also forced whalers to explore the southern waters. The Hobart barqueVenus reached 72°S in search of whales in 1831. Its return to Australia with a cargo of sperm whale oil stimulated others to explore the far south. Elsewhere around Antarctica other voyages by English, American and Russian vessels were making significant discoveries. The geographic and scientific exploration of Antarctica was thus encouraged by the early commercial ventures.
Many explorers bound for the Antarctic visited Australia for supplies for their southern journeys, including John Biscoe, Charles Wilkes, Dumont d'Urville and James Clark Ross. The use of Hobart as a port of call for most of these expeditions and its support for the southern sealing and whaling industries fostered Australian interest in Antarctica.
The scientific era begins
Despite the brief extension of harvesting activities to Heard Island, the middle of the 1800's saw a decline in Antarctic whaling and sealing. Commercial exploitation gave way to scientific exploration.
A Tasmanian scientific journal of 1842 saw the first promotion of Australian research in the Antarctic. However, the call was not taken up until after the highly successful Challenger expedition was concluded in 1876 and the studies of the International Polar Year completed in 1883. Australian scientific societies then became keen to develop research into Antarctica's geological, meteorological and magnetic phenomena.
In 1886 the Australian Antarctic Exploration Committee was established by the Royal Society of Victoria to investigate, among other things, the establishment of research stations and the use of steam powered ships to penetrate areas inaccessible to sailing vessels. However, proposals put forward by the Committee to mount a purely scientific expedition did not bring immediate results.
First landing on the continent 1895
A revival of interest in whaling towards the end of the nineteenth century prompted a Norwegian expedition to explore Antarctic waters south of Australia for new whaling grounds. The manager of the expedition was Norwegian H J Bull, of Melbourne, and signed on as expedition scientist was another Norwegian, C E Borchgrevink, who had been working in Australia as a teacher.
In January 1895 they were in the party that made the first landing on continental Antarctica, at Cape Adare. During the brief visit ashore Borchgrevink made collections of rocks and lichens. No new whaling grounds were found, but when the Antarctic expedition arrived back in Australia the specimens were proof of the opportunities for research.
First planned wintering party 1898-99: Australian expeditioners
Carsten Borchgrevinck
Borchgrevink proposed a return visit to the Antarctic with a scientific party that would, for the first time, stay for a winter on the continent. The expedition, mounted in England, sailed from Hobart in November 1898 aboard the Southern Cross and carried a research staff of seven.
The first Australian to land on the Antarctic continent was the scientist of that party, the young Tasmanian physicist, Louis Charles Bernacchi. He concluded that although there were poor prospects for commercial advantage, "Antarctic exploration is of capital importance to science". This expedition became the first party to spend a winter on the Antarctic continent.
Robert Falcon Scott 1901-04: Australian involvement
Over a short period around the turn of the century research expeditions were mounted by several countries. Australia took particular interest in Scott's 1901-1904 expedition, on the Discovery, offering financial support and port facilities. Bernacchi returned to the Antarctic as Scott's physicist.
Shackleton 1907-09" Australian involvement
Australia also played a major role in the success of Shackleton's 1907-09 expedition. The Australian Government donated 5000 pounds (sterling) to the expedition.
Australians directly participating included geologist Professor Edgeworth David, who joined Shackleton as chief scientific officer; Bertram Armytage of Melbourne; Leo Cotton of Sydney; and Captain John King Davis, master of the expedition's vessel, who would go on to play a major part in Australia's exploration of Antarctica.
The AAT is the largest territorial claim on the continent and covers much of east Antarctica. The total area is approximately 5,800,000 sq Km – about the area of Australia excluding Queensland.
It consists of all islands and territories south of 60°S between 45°E and 160°E, with the exception of the French sector of Terre Adélie, which comprises the islands and territories south of 60°S and between longitudes 136°E and 142°E.
Australia is among seven nations which have claimed territory in Antarctica. The other claimant nations are Argentina, Chile, France, New zealand, Norway and the United Kingdom.
The Australian claim is based on discovery and a long historical association with this part of Antarctica.
Douglas Mawson: AAE & BANZARE
Sir Douglas Mawson in the Commander's Cabin, Discovery.
Photo: Frank Hurley
Australia's Douglas Mawson led the 1911 to 1914 Australasian Antarctic Expedition (AAE) which established bases at Commonwealth Bay and the Shackleton Ice Shelf. The expedition explored extensively along the coast near the bases and claimed this land as British territory.
In 1929 – 1931 further extensive claims to sovereignty were made by the British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research (BANZARE) expedition again led by Douglas Mawson.
Three new landings were made and aircraft flights discovered the BANZARE Coast and Princess Elizabeth Land. The expedition also generated scientific results that were so voluminous that reports were still being published three decades later.
In two summer voyages Discovery and the expedition aircraft traversed the whole coastline from 45°E to 160°E, defining the limits of what was to become the Australian Antarctic Territory. Mawson made proclamations claiming sovereignty for Britain over Antarctic lands at each of landfall.
Proclamation of the AAT
On 7 February 1933, the British Government issued an Order-in-Council placing the Territory under the authority of the Commonwealth of Australia.
That part of the Territory in the Antarctic seas which comprises all the islands and territories, other than Adelie Land, situated south of the 60th degree south latitude and lying between the 160th degree east longitude and the 45th degree east longitude, is hereby declared to be accepted by the Commonwealth as a Territory under the authority of the Commonwealth, by the name of the Australian Antarctic Territory.
The AAT became permanently occupied in February 1954 with the establishment of Mawson - the oldest continuously occupied station south of the Antarctic Circle
ANARE is createdTo capitalise on the achievements of BANZARE, plans turned towards the establishment of permanent Antarctic stations which could support further exploratory work as well as conduct meteorological and other studies. Wilkins' ship Wyatt Earp was purchased by the government to support these proposals, but progress in Australian exploration had to be deferred with the outbreak of the Second World War.
Revival of interest after WW2
Australian interest in Antarctica revived after the War.
Mawson's BANZARE party at Proclamation Island.
Photo: Frank Hurley
The immediate interest was in Antarctic meteorology and in 1947 a number of reconnaissance flights were conducted over the Southern Ocean but the principal aim was to establish permanent scientific stations on the Antarctic continent.
Bottom of Form
As a result of representations to the Government by Sir Douglas Mawson an inter-departmental committee recommended, in December 1946, that firm commitment be made to an Antarctic expedition.
The government then moved quickly to approve the immediate establishment of meteorological and scientific research stations on Heard Island and Macquarie Island and the use of Wyatt Earp to reconnoitre a site for a permanent station on the Antarctic continent.
ANARE is born
To coordinate preparations for the work an Executive Planning Committee was established in May 1947, with Sir Douglas Mawson as advisor. Group Captain Stuart Campbell, who had been in charge of BANZARE flying operations, was appointed chief executive officer of the expedition, which in August 1947 was given the formal title, Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition (ANARE). Dr Phillip Law, a physics lecturer from the University of Melbourne, was appointed to plan and organise the scientific program.
First ANARE season
In the first season of ANARE, using the naval vessel LST 3501, stations were established on Heard Island, in December 1947, and at Macquarie Island, in March 1948.
Meanwhile, under Karl Oom's command, Wyatt Earp sailed south to find a site for a continental station. Although weather and ice conditions prevented the small ship from reaching the coast, the voyage achieved some of its scientific aims, notably in Law's cosmic ray research.
However, it was clear that Wyatt Earp was not suitable for the work planned for ANARE and another six years were to pass before Australia could secure a vessel adequate for the task.
Despite the setback in not achieving the continental part of the program, the first expedition was deemed a success and the government resolved to put ANARE on a permanent footing.
Establishment of the Antarctic Division
The Antarctic Division of the Department of External Affairs was created in May 1948 to administer and coordinate ANARE.
Kista Dan during voyage to establish Mawson Station 7th February 1954
Photo: Phillip Law
In January 1949 Phillip Law was appointed Director of the Antarctic Division and leader of ANARE - a position which he was to hold for the next 17 years.
The work on the subantarctic islands continued to develop, with a wide range of scientific disciplines being studied.
Law wanted the ANARE effort extended to the continent, where the greatest scientific opportunities were to be found, and devoted considerable energy to seeking vessels that could safely support extended journeys into the Antarctic pack ice. His solution to the problem was to look to the northern hemisphere where ice strengthened vessels lay idle during the northern winter.
In 1953 he found a ship, the Kista Dan, that would prove ideal for his purpose of penetrating the Antarctic. His plans to establish a permanent station on the continent could be realised.
Establishment of Mawson
The site of Mawson Station on 13th February 1954
Photo: AAD
Kista Dan sailed from Melbourne in January 1954 for Heard Island and MacRobertson Land. A suitable site for a station was found on a rock outcrop surrounding a natural deep-water harbour. It was ideal. The site was one of the few rock exposures along the coast and offered excellent access to the interior of the continent.
Over a period of twelve days prefabricated buildings, food, stores, scientific equipment and over-snow vehicles were landed and construction of the station was commenced. On 13 February 1954 Phillip Law opened Australia's first permanent station in Antarctica, naming it in honour of Sir Douglas Mawson.
After leaving Robert Dovers and the winter party to finish construction work, commence the scientific program and make a start on the inland exploration, the ship sailed east to explore Mackenzie Bay and the Vestfold Hills in Princess Elizabeth Land. This set the pattern for Law's future work, where each voyage would support the permanent stations and then remain in the Antarctic conducting extensive surveys along the coast of the Australian Antarctic Territory.
Establishment of Davis
Davis in 1957
Photo: P. Law (AAD)
Following the successful establishment of Mawson and the great gains made in inland survey work, further impetus to concentrate on the continent came from the decision to participate in the International Geophysical Year (IGY). This was to run from 1957 to 1958 and emphasised the unique scientific opportunities of Antarctica.
Law's plans to establish a second station in the Vestfold Hills, which he had visited in 1954, were therefore timely. Law saw it as essential that Australia build its second station in this extensive ice free area which promised unique scientific opportunities.
Kista Dan was again used to carry the party and materials for a new station, and on 13 January 1957 Law opened Davis, naming it in honour of Captain John King Davis.
International cooperationInternational Geophysical Year (IGY)
In 1958 a new Lauritzen vessel, Thala Dan, was brought into service for ANARE.
The expedition conducted a coastal survey in Oates Land, in the eastern sector of AAT, completed the annual relief of Davis and Mawson stations, and concluded with a survey westward to Enderby Land. This complemented extensive inland surveys that had been completed by the winter parties.
By the time the IGY commenced, Law had established Australia's ability to visit most parts of the AAT and to collect data simultaneously from a station in the subantarctic, two permanently occupied continental stations, and an automatic weather station which had been installed on Lewis Island in Wilkes Land.
The conclusion of the IGY saw Australia firmly committed to continuing exploration and research in AAT and in 1958 Law was able to negotiate the transfer to Australian administrative control of Wilkes, which had been established for the IGY by the United States.
Wilkes, on the coast of what is now Law Dome, was permanently placed in Australian custody on 4 February 1959. Due to snow and ice build up, Wilkes was closed replaced at first by Casey Repstat and later by modern-day Casey.
Antarctic Treaty
The IGY had proved to be a hugely productive scientific experiment and had demonstrated that many nations could amicably work together in the Antarctic.
The spirit of cooperation that evolved during IGY prompted proposals that this uniquely successful scheme should be continued, leading to formation of the Antarctic Treaty in December 1959. Australia's credibility in Antarctic matters gave it a significant influence in the establishment of the Treaty. When the Treaty was ratified in 1961 Australia had become a leading nation in Antarctic science and exploration.
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Modern expeditions
Expeditioner in modern polar clothing
Photo: T, Taylor
Thousands of men and women have travelled south over the years since the establishment of ANARE in 1947. All have lived and worked in one of the most challenging environments on the planet for periods of time ranging from a few weeks to eighteen months.
Today Australia administers three Antarctic stations, Casey, Davis and Mawson, and maintains a permanent subantarctic base on Macquarie Island. It conducts an extensive marine science program on its own icebreaker ship, RSV Aurora Australis.
Scientists, plumbers, electricians, chefs, carpenters, builders, communications technicians, doctors and engineers have all played an important role in the development and maintenance of our Antarctic program.
The way in which people live and work has changed greatly over the past 60 years. Advances in technology have impacted most obviously on communications and travel, but also on other aspects of daily life such as building techniques, food preservation, clothing and power generation.
Operational advances and local community cultural changes go hand in hand. As people's experiences of Antarctica change, so too do their responses. There has been a major shift in perception of the expeditioner experience from one of survival in a hostile climate, to one of living responsibly in a fragile, pristine environment.
ANARE's operational history is a fascinating story, one that is ongoing as the AAD continually initiates research into new projects and implements innovative engineering solutions to the challenges of living in Antarctica.
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