Semester II Final Study Guide Name: ______Period: _____
Genetics:
1. Define the following and give an example:
a. Gene: the molecular unit of heredity
b. Allele: a variant form of a gene.
c. Homozygous: genotype consisting of two identical alleles.
d. Heterozygous: genotype consisting of two different alleles of a gene.
e. Genotype: the genetic makeup of an individual
f. Phenotype: an organism’s observable characteristics or traits.
2. Using F’s, what is the genotype for a person that is:
a. Homozygous dominant: FF
b. Heterozygous: Ff
c. Homozygous recessive: ff
3. Blood type is controlled by what type of dominance? Multiple alleles and codominance
4. What do we call traits carried on the X chromosome (#23 in humans)? Sex-linked traits
a. What is the normal genotype of a female? XX
b. What is the normal genotype of a male? XY
c. Can men be carriers and why? No, it requires two X chromosomes to be a heterozygote.
5. Fill in the chart with information on the types of complex inheritance:
Incomplete / Codominance / Multiple Alleles (blood type)Define / One allele does not completely dominate over another and results in a new phenotype for the heterozygote. / Both dominant genes are expressed in the heterozygote. / A set of three or more alleles of a gene, only two of which can be present in a diploid organism.
Example Punnett Square Problem / / /
Define / Sex Linked- a gene only found on the X chromosome and not the Y chromosome is said to be sex-linked. / Single Punnett Square- The dominant gene hides any recessive ones. The heterozygote will resemble the dominant alleles. / Dihybrid Crosses- a cross between two organisms that differ in two observable traits. Results in a 9:3:3:1 ratio of offspring.
Example Punnett Square Problem / / /
DNA and Protein Synthesis:
Semi-conservative model: replication that produces two copies that each contained one of the original strands and one new strand.
Triplet or Codon: a sequence of three DNA or RNA nucleotides mRNA: gives information from DNA to the ribosome. Mutation: a permanent change of DNA that can be good, bad, or neutral.
What does DNA stand for? Deoxyribonucleic acid
1. DNA is made up of nucleotides which have 3 parts Label the following picture
Be sure to Include:
Sugar: deoxyribose
Four different Nitrogen Bases. Adenine Guanine Thymine Cytosine
And the phosphate
2. In RNA, which bases are swapped: Uracil is replaced with thymine.
3. Rosalind Franklin’s x-ray image helped Watson and Crick determine what characteristic about DNA?
She helped identify the structure of DNA.
4. Why do we need DNA Replication?: repair, replication, and growth
5. Why do we need Protein Synthesis?: for structure and movement
6. The Central Dogma states that information flows:
DNA à RNA à Protein
Replication: process of making identical replicas from one original DNA molecule.
-goes from what to what: DNA to DNA
Practice: DNA: ATGCCTGATCGAGGT
REPLICATED: TAC GGA CTA GCT CCA
Transcription: DNA is copied into RNA by RNA polymerase.
-goes from what to what: DNA à RNA
Practice: mRNA: AUG CCU GAU CGA GGU
Translation: mRNA is decoded by a ribosome into a specific amino acid chain.
-goes from what to what: RNA à Amino Acid chain
Practice: Amino Acids: MET PRO TYR ARG GLY
7. How many amino acids are there? 20 How can they make thousands of different proteins? Different combinations of amino acids leads to variation.
8. Genes contain instructions for assembling: proteins
9. List three differences between RNA and DNA:
RNA is a single strand, has the sugar ribose, and has the base uracil instead of thymine.
Biotechnology:
Define:
Restriction Enzymes: cut a DNA molecule at a particular place.
Plasmid: small DNA molecule within a cell that is found in bacteria that is circular.
Ligase: an enzyme that can bind or glue together two strands of DNA.
Bacteria: used as a vector for transformations.
Gene of Interest: gene that is going to be transformed.
Cell Energy:
Process / Photosynthesis / Cell RespirationDefinition / Process used by plants to convert light energy
into chemical energy. / Process of oxidizing food into carbon dioxide and
water to release energy in the form of ATP.
Equation / 6 CO2 + 6H2O à 6O2 + Glucose / Glucose + 6O2 à 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
Location / Chloroplasts / Mitochondria
Steps Involved / 1. Light dependent reactions
2. Light independent reactions / 1. Krebs cycle
2. Electron Transport Chain
Occurs in: Plants,
Animals or Both / Plants / Both
Physiology:
1. Define differentiation (include what type of cells differentiate)? The process by which a cell changes from one cell type into another.
2. What is homeostasis? Stable internal environments
3. Give an example of a negative feedback loop: temperature regulation in mammals
4. What is the function of the nervous system: transmits signals between different parts of the body.
a. Central Nervous System parts: brain and spinal cord
b. Peripheral Nervous System parts: nerves
5. Describe what a neuron is and what it does: a cell that can transmit signals
6. What are the 3 types of neurons: interneuron, sensory neuron and motor neuron.
7. Describe the pathway of a reflex loop: neural pathway that controls an action reflex
What part of the nervous system is not involved in a reflex loop? Neurons do not pass directly to the brain.
8. What is an Action Potential? A short-lasting event in which the electrical potential of a cell rapidly rises and falls.
9. Define neurotransmitter: chemicals that transmit signals across a synapse
10. What is the function of the endocrine system? Collection of glands that secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system
11. What are the functions of the respiratory system? Organs of your body help you deliver oxygen to the body and take away carbon dioxide.
13. Describe what occurs in the alveoli (alveolar sacs): gas exchange happens in the sacs. Oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out.
14. Describe diffusion: the process of molecules moving until equilibrium is met. Moves from areas of high concentration to areas of lower concentration.
15. What muscle aids in breathing? The diaphragm
16. What are the functions of the circulatory system: Circulates blood and transports nutrients.
17. List and describe the 3 types of vessels that carry blood:
a. veins = carries blood into the heart
b. arteries = carries blood away from the heart
c. capillaries = smallest blood vessels
18. Blood Contains:
Plasma which make up 55 % of blood and it contains sugar, salt, and nutrients. Blood also contains
Hemoglobin which makes up 45% of blood and its function is to carry oxygen.
19. What is the difference between infectious and non-infectious diseases?
Infectious can be spread from organism to organism through direct and indirect contact such as the flu.
20. What is a pathogen? A disease causing agent.
Give two examples
1. Virus 2. Bacteria
21. Describe the 3 lines of defense your body uses against infection:
Line of Defense / Name / Its Function?1st: / Skin / Protective barrier
2nd / Inflammation / Reaction to pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants.
3rd: / Cell Mediated / Be sure to include all the cells involved and their roll.
That does not involve antibodies but the activation of
Phagocytes and T-cells.
22. What are memory B cells? Cells that form after exposure to pathogens that remember how to fight a disease.
23. Define the following:
a. antibody = block certain pathogens.
b. antigen = anything that causes a response
c. acquired immunity = immunity after exposure to certain pathogens.
d. autoimmune disease = a disease caused by when your immune system attacks itself.
e. immune disease = your body is unable to fight off disease
f. vaccine = prevent diseases by giving acquired immunity to a particular disease.
g. allergy = hypersensitivity disorder of the immune system
24. How do antibiotics destroy bacteria? Prevents bacteria from building cell walls.
Why don’t they work on viruses? Viruses do not have cell walls or most things that bacteria do.
25. Compare and Contrast Bacteria and Viruses:
26. What is the function of the digestive system?
To extract nutrients from food and extract water from food.
27. Describe the pathway of food through the digestive system from first bite to elimination of solid waste: mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestines, and the rectum.
28. What do villi do? Help increase the surface area of the small intestines to maximize absorption.
29. What do your kidneys do? Filter out waste products from the blood and to retain water levels.
30.