Evolution of Ethical Dilemma and Value conflicts in Social Science Research: an annotated essay
Anil K Gupta and Ram Kumar, IIMA 1986
Contents
1. Introduction
Evolution of Ethical Dilemma and Value Conflicts
- Moral boundaries and expedient behaviors
- Professional values vis-a-vis
- Value and objectivity : Social Science Versus natural sciences
- Are conflicts necessary:from "criticism to commitment"
2. Situating Research : politics of paradigmatic persuasions,
methodological instruments and assumption
- Autonomy of researcher vis-a-vis peer pressures
- Dilemma of 'Is' , 'ought' and 'possible'
- Cultural roots of perception
- Power of researcher over researched; defining respondents and
limits of their responses
- Means - end controversy
- Methodological Blinkers:
- Consent of researcher
- Convert/overt collection of data
- Deception/Manipulation in self identification and purpose
of outcome of research.
3. Role of Researcher and choice of research problem/paradigm
- Sponsored research
- research in one's own country vis-a-vis foreign countries
- consultancy research
- advocacy research
- discriminative research vis-a-vis the researched/subjects/
objects etc.
4. Why Research : The purpose, use, risks and Chances
- Responsibility of researcher
- Dissemination of findings
- Risks to the researcher and the researched
- Interventionist research vis-a-vis comprehension research;
is research without intervention possible?
- Policy research : Short versus long term, sectoral versus
intersectoral implications-Choice of interfaces;
5. Ethical Deviance : Individual/group/profession/
Organization
- homeostatic limits of deviance
- from deviance to dissidence and from dissidence to
paradigmatic shifts/revolutions
6. Towards consensus on 'Code of conduct' or conduct of
continued debate?
INTRODUCTION
EVOLUTION OF ETHICAL DILEMMA AND VALUE CONFLICTS
General Issues
- "General decision making is a tortuous process, since each
event is a convoluted and almost endless labyrinth of
considerations and commitments. A simple shift in perspective or
an unexpected twist of fate can alter one's entire set of
responsibilities and obligations. Guilty knowledge and dirty
hands are at the heart of urban field work experience.
Recognition of this field work is necessary if a field work is to
function effectively and morally. Awareness of the context of
research can prevent paralysis as well as overzealousness in the
field." (Fetterman 1983 : p 222)
(1) -Causes of sudden rise in concern in ethics:?
- peasantry (respondents), students, younger anthropolo gists
etc. (Huizer, 1983 : p 1)
(2) -Definition of multiplex (Sieber, 1982 : p 150)
- Quotations by (Maiey and Thyrber, 1968 and Kahil Gibran)
- Definitions of human subjects (Pool, 1980 : p 60)
- And no field research whether a sample survey, an
observational study or even the secondary analysis of existing
data, is immune to such ethical questions as informed consent,
harm resulting from the research findings, and policy
recommendations (Warwick : 316)
- Why ethics is needed? (Reissman and Siluert, 1967 : p 1)
- Ethics deals with the questions of moral goodness or evil
and with the proper standards for human action (Warwick, 1983 : p
316).
Researcher's Value Neutrality to Respondents
- Field work in contract ethnography must be conducted at an
accelerated pace in a much shorter period of time than
traditional field work. This is both physically and mentally
demanding. Continuous immersion in the personal and professional
problems of informants can be emotionally draining as well.
Fetlerman, 1983: 221.
- Kobben (1967: 46) reported of his Surinam field work: "Since
an ethnographer studies people and not insects, his field work
also causes emotions in himself. Personally I lived under great
psychological stress and felt little of the proverbial
peacefulness of `country life'. Few books touch on the
subjects; but I know that the same is quite true of quite a
number of other field workers. Perhaps it is even a sine quo non
for field work." (in Fetlerman, 1983: 221).
- Goal and Moral (in warfare), (Freud, 1969: XIII).
- Value ladden context of sociological research (Denzin, 1970:
p 331-2), (Macluer in Kamaraju 1972: p 2), (Greene, 1970: p 278),
(Krishan Kumar, 1971: p 1); (Durkhein, 1938: p 192), (Parets,
1937: p 545), (Weber in Krishan Kumar: p 3).
- Value in social sciences and ethics (Greene, 1970: p 280);
(Sieber, 1982: pp 149-152); (Harsanyi, 1985: p 123 in Paul et al,
ed.).
- Value judgments and its control in social science research
(Krishan Kumar, 1971: p 1).
- Biases arising due to valuation in value-free discipline
(Krishan Kumar, 1971: p 5).
- A state of receptive absent-mindedness for value free social
science research (Rowan, 1980: p 81).
- Planners' commitment to agency and other citizens for
leakage of information.
- Why research? (Huizer, 1973 : p 2)
- Politics refers to interactions revolving around power,
influence and authority. Research is political to the extent
that it affects the ability of individuals or groups to impose
their will, to pursue their interests or to be seen as legitimate
authority.
In the context of policy selmount mites of gatton a fear has been
expressed "by the end the majesty of social science researchers
should be conducted under contract of Govt. & other agencies who
relevant policy making."
(Wenger 1987:? This book provides at a view on agency or policy
making boders on other hand)
Relationship between researchers on one hand and fun along
Social Sciences and Natural Sciences Comparison
- Motion of national science (instead of international
science) is ridiculous. (Varsowsky, 1967 : p 22).
- Edward Sampson's naturalistic conception of science with
facts appearing in "abstract, several and universal forms",
(Miller, 1980 : p 68).
- Use of mathematical models for research in social sciences -
Hazardous, with false sense of objectivity and hiding valuation
of social scientists. (Krishan Kumar, 1971 : p 11)
- "The cannons of scientific enquiry require that a social
scientist must demonstrate the same type of `detachment' or
`ethical neutrality' which a natural scientist displays towards
his subject matters" (ibid : p 3).
- Variance in observation of social scientist will ever remain
(Denzin, 1970 : p 341).
- Science and its commitments for accuracy in research and
rapid and direct use of its findings on promoting certain
practical aims (Bulmer and Warwick, 1983 : p 353).
- Social science research should keep abreast with changing
social conditions (Miller, 1980 : p 68).
CHAPTER 2
Situating Research : Politics of paradigmatic
Persuations, methodological instruments and assumptions
- "Political and military warfare methods aim at weaker point
of enemy and social science methods striking at strongest points
of enemy (i.e. assumptions)" (In Joshi 1986 : p 155 from gramsci
1971 : pp 432-433)
Autonomy of researcher vis-a-vis peer pressures
- Discourage a scientist because his findings contradicted
ideology and popular sentiment of the decade (Hartman and
Hedblom, 1982 : p 348)
- Adverse consequences of lack of intellectual independence in
social science research (Joshi, 1986 : p 140)
- Challenges to social scientists to tackle social problems
(Joshi, 1986 : p 149)
- Promote social scientists from lower class in rural areas
(Joshi, 1986 : pp 150-51)
- Politicization of social research and government
intervention (ibid pp 152-53)
- Barriers for Scientists - If research is to contribute in
solving the human problems,(a) Government must accept the
political scientists as a partner in decision making.(b)
Reduction in the barriers to his entry into inner circles of the
decision making process.(Frankel, Mark S)
- Consequences of Barriers to the freedom of Scientists (a)
Loss in scientist's ability to acquire and disseminate the
information freely.(b) Robs the public and government of reliable
and accurate data needed to assess the effectiveness and fairness
of public programmes.(ibid.)
- Responsibility of Government : Independent and Critical
Research is responsibility of Government that (a) Government has
to its citizens (b) Government owes to itself.(ibid.)
- Accountability of Social Researcher : Social scientists at
present are held publicly accommodate by the federal government
for their research with human subjects but exercise very little
freedom, and without the exercise of professional discretion
leads itself to political coercion and harassment.(Gelliher).
And several years ago I (Galliher, 1973) suggested that the
American Sociological Association to alter its Code of Ethics as
to support the right of socioligists to conduct research on the
behavior of those in public positions where they are accountable
to all citizens. Such calls for accountability do not
necessarily assume that public officials are inherently evil but
merely that there high position gives them power which can be
abused. Publicly, social scientists have not objected to the
general idea of such research, but simply ignored it. The
American Sociological Association has disregarded my suggestion
for altering the Code of Ethics. Although devoted to ethical
problems is social science research, a recent issue of The
American Sociologist(August, 1978) did not touch on the subject
(researching the publicly accountable) although the sixteen
contributors included some of the most prominent scholars
associated with the social science study of ethics. Given their
traditional concerns with more individualistic issues (Kelman,
1972), one can understand why psychologists might overlook power
and public accountability, even in discussions of the
relationship between power and research ethics, but clearly it is
within the purview of anthropology, social science and sociology.
A hint as to why avoidance takes place is in the controversy
found in the report of the American Sociological Association
Committee of Professional Ethics. In drafting the Association's
Code of Ethics the committee recognized some areas of "unfinished
business" which were "impossible to resolve":
To what extent can public figures claim the same rights of
privacy as ordinary citizens? To what extent does the
injection about the confidentiality of research?... Clearly,
much more thought and analysis must be devoted to such
questions, and others as well (American Sociologist,
1968:316).
Dilemma of 'Is' 'ought' and 'possible'
- Weber - "An empirical science can't tell anyone what he
should do - but rather what he can do and in other circumstances
what he wished to do" (in Kamaraju, 1972 : p2)
- Distinction between `is' and `ought' (Nelson, 1978 : p 7),
(Cassell, 1981 : p 167)
- "Socially desirable and morally right" varies from region to
region (Agrawal, forthcoming; p 11)
The very cultural ethos is at variance from one linguistic region
to another linguistic region. What is socially acceptable and
morally right in one region becomes socially undewirable and
ethically sinful in another region. This is well reflected in the
attitudes of the Regional Censor Board of Film Certification of
the country set up to preview films in different states. There
are ample evidences to support the view, that what was considered
offensive or vulgar in a film from one region is considered as
natural and an authentic image in another region. The control
and regulations imposed upon the Indian Press and printing is the
oldest and most pervasive to an extent that even a leaflet or
pamphlet must carry the name of the printer and its copies must
be sent to the local authorities. There is no ethical or moral
ground for doing so expect that it must be controlled to minimize
its undesirable effects on the law and order situation.
Cultural Roots of Perception
- Ways of resolving researcher's obligation dilemma to
respondents : ethical absolutists and ethical relativists and
differences in their positions (Denzin, 1970 : pp 333-34)
- Social adjustments with technological changes in USA (Adams,
1967 : p 18)
The view of United States anthropologists in this period was
congruent with those in their own society. To change a society
meant that any adjustments should be minimal. In the development
of the United States, technological changes forged ahead, and
the society made successive adjustments to these technological
innovations. Under such conditions of technologicalprimacy,
social development was generally perceived as a matter of
adjustment to the "realities" of the situation. Social
innovation not directly related to such adjustments was often
labeled as being "socialist", or "communist". "The notion of
"laissez fairs," an intellectual by product of the industrial
revolution, had by the first quarter of the twentieth century
become an ideology.
Another strategy of academic radicals is to cite repeatedly some
modest piece of evidence, or the work of a well-known person.
While ignoring the existence of a mass of contrary empirical
evidence. Each such citation can then be cited in a later
article in another journal, thus accumulating what appears to be
a considerable support for the expectancy hypothesis. Few
readers ever bother to check the original research cited in this
way. For example, one hypothesis claims that the reason boys in
elementary grades read less well than girls is that teachers
expect boys to read less well. A study by Michael Palardy
several decades ago is widely cited in the literature as proving
this claim, though an examination of the article itself reveals
that in the analysis of variance of reading scores in the subject
classrooms the main effect of sex differences does not exceed
chance. A review within the past year of the evidence on
teacher-expectancy effects, by Wendy Gollub and sloan,
simply ignored the mass of contrary evidence from controlled
studies and reported a few ethnographic studies like Rist's as
conclusive. The journal headed the article with the line:
"Evidence of teacher bias continue to accumulate."
- Male dominance in society and research works (Miller 1980 :
p 78-79 and Margret Mead's work) ciation of some modest piece of
evidence or work of well known while ignoring mass of existing
contrary empirical evidence.
- Research ethics in different contexts of cultural
differences of professionals (Hamnett et al; 1984 : p 6)
- Biases against Marxism in Indian research institutes (Joshi,
1986 : pp 155-56; (S. Gopal, 1978 : p 74)
- Marxism in social science and its flows (Sayer,1984 : p 217)
- Affect of colonization on social science research, dominance
of western scientists & west oriented problems (Joshi, 1986: p
139).
- National policy for social science (Ibid, p 147).
- Effect of institution builders' personality on the
institutions' scientific spirits and independence (Ibid, p 158-
9).
- There is a difference between being an academic and an
activist; however, academic study does not preclude advocacy. In
fact, often anything less represents an abdication of one's
responsibility as a social scientist (see in Berreman, 1968; and
Gaugh, 1968). It should, however, be acknowledged that the
researcher functions as a public relations person or politician
in this arena rather than as a researcher.
- Political role of managers/planners (Howe and Kaufman, 1982
: p 26).
- Ethics and role conflicts of a social researcher's role as a
researcher, clinical and personal roles (Libson, 1984 : p 350)
- Differences in ethical dimensions for lawyer and researcher
(Magel, 1982 : pp 68-69)
The three roles overlap each other and social intervention
is effected by these roles. But the most important function of
social scientist as a social critic with a sense of purpose and
responsibilities.
- Social scientists' three fold role : As analysts,observers
and interventionist (Dube, 1982 : pp 5-6).
The rewards of social sciences, and its fringe benefits, can
be seizable if one keeps on the right side of the social
science establishment, which in its turn has visible and
invisible linkages with the political establishment. The
social scientists are loud in their protest when it comes to
the question of commitment to those in power or to an
ideology. They must know that in a substantial measure
their innocence is untenable. A great deal of Western
social science is oriented towards maintenance of status
quo; so is a large part of Third World social science.
Many social scientists are positive in their affirmation
that their commitment is to their science. Such a claim
assumes a degree of unity in the discipline which does not
exist in reality.
The question of commitment must lead us to a serious heart-
searching. Are we promoting, through the social sciences,
our individual and collective self-interest as social
scientists? Are we not, for a variety of reasons,
acquiescent towards the prevailing power and its ideology:
Are the assumptions of the social sciences
Power of Researcher over researched; defining respondents and
limits of their responses
-(a) Prof. K Mathur (in Personnel Communication) once raised the
issues of status of an officer who worked on lower level official
in discipline of Public Administration. By working on top
bureaucrats and powerful people, do researchers star reflecting
some of the power just like journalist report on moods of elite
vis-a-vis on the problems of underdogs.
- Study of rich people/superordinates/public officials
(Galliher, 1980 : pp 298-302) - busy, difficult to study.
- Research on powerful - impossible (Galliher, 1980: p 300)
- Who should be held accountable (top or lower
level) (ibid : p 300)
- Do public officials lose private rights when performing
public roles (Galliher, 1980 : p 300)
- Is everybody (equally?) accountable to social scientist?
(Galliher, 1980 : p 300)
- Status of social scientists vis-a-vis that of rich subjects
(Galliher, 1980 : p 302)
- Powerful people so confident; self-righteous that they
usually talk freely (Galliher, 1980 : p 303)
- Superordinates do not deserve same degree and type of
consideration as deprived and powerless individuals (galliher,
1980 : p 304)
- Study on the political and ethical issues arising when
researchers from the one part of society, particularly the
dominant group attempts to study other groups, particularly
minority groups in the same society (Warwick, 1983 : p 316)
- The subjects seen as victim and experimenter as brutalised
with suspicion and rejection (Mead, 1963 : p 374)
- Psychiatrist need not himself become tempted to
understand a demented patient (Nagel 1961 in Kamaraju, 1972 : p
3)
There is no warrant for the belief that the social scientist
cannot understand a mental state without experiencing the
imputed psychological state in his own mind. Nagel rightly
states that while understanding a demented patient, a
psychiatrist need not himself become demented. Hayek has argued
that the social sciences deal with the relations between man and
man. They are concerned with the purposes or choices in human or
social actions. "The objects like a hammer or a barometer cannot
be referred to "objective facts...... and they cannot be defined
in physical terms." Also physical objects like a hammer or a
barometer cannot be referred to "objective facts" but only to
what people think about them. "Careful logical analysis of these
concepts will show that they all express relationships between
several terms, of which one is the acting or thinking person, the
other some desired or imagined effect, and the third a thing in
the ordinary sense."11
- Subjects demands in lieu of their cooperation| (Denzin, 1970