Ethical Theories

Ethics has developed various responses or ethical theories. You need to know and study them, because they offer rational arguments, not merely subjective desires, on what may be best for humans. From these arguments, we can try to find the most universally applicable moral values and norms provide the ethical project of coexistence.

Teleological ethics

(teleological from Greek telos, “end”; logos, “science”), theory of morality that derives duty or moral obligation from what is good or desirable as an end to be achieved. Also known as consequentialist ethics, it is opposed to deontological ethics (from the Greek deon, “duty”), which holds that the basic standards for an action’s being morally right are independent of the good or evil generated.

Teleological moral systems are characterized primarily by a focus on the consequences which any action might have (for that reason, they are often referred to as consequentalist moral systems). Thus, in order to make correct moral choices, we have to have some understanding of what will result from our choices. When we make choices which result in the correct consequences, then we are acting morally; when we make choices which result in the incorrect consequences, then we are acting immorally.

Virtue Ethics

Virtue-based ethical theories place much less emphasis on which rules people should follow and instead focus on helping people develop good character traits, such as kindness and generosity. These character traits will, in turn, allow a person to make the correct decisions later on in life. Virtue theorists also emphasize the need for people to learn how to break bad habits of character, like greed or anger. These are called vices and stand in the way of becoming a good person.

Modern ethics, especially since the 18th-century German deontological philosophy of Immanuel Kant, has been deeply divided between a form of teleological ethics (utilitarianism) and deontological theories.

Deontological ethics

Any ethics which does not make the theory of obligation entirely dependent on the theory of value, holding that an action may be known to be right without a consideration of the goodness of anything, or at least that an action may be right and be known to be so even though it does not flow from the agent's best motive (or even from a good one) and does not, by being performed, bring into being as much good as some other action open to the agent.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) derives his ethics from his theory of human nature. What is essential to humans, as opposed to other animals, is that they are rational, meaning that they can act on principles or laws. Other animals natures are largely instinctual, but humans must make their own natures, or rules for action. This is an incredible responsibility for human beings, since whenever we act it is as though we have created a law for human action -- as though we have said that it would be permissible for everyone to act in the same way.

Kant's main ethical principle is called "the categorical imperative," and there are two versions. Philosophers dispute over whether the two versions are intended to form two separate principles or are really two versions of the same principle. The first version of the principle is: "Act only on that maxim through which you can, at the same time, will that it become a universal law" (Kant, 88). When choosing a maxim, or a principle, on which to act, then, you should always consider whether it would be right or wrong universally. Some maxims, Kant argues, cannot logically be willed universally, and are, therefore, wrong.

Utilitarism

Utilitarianism, in general, is the ethical theory that says that the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by the goodness (utility) or badness (disutility) of its expectable consequences. Bentham believed that we should always choose the action which is likely to result in the most happiness for everyone affected, where happiness is defined as pleasure and freedom from pain.

Consequentialism / Deontology / Virtue Theory
example / Mill's utilitarianism / Kantian ethics / Aristotle's moral theory
abstract description / An action is right if it promotes the best consequences. / An action is right if it is in accordance with a moral rule or principle. / An action is right if it is what a virtuous agent would do in the circumstances.
more concrete specification / The best consequences are those in which happiness is maximized. / A moral rule is one that is required by rationality. / A virtuous agent is one who acts virtuously, that is, one who has and exercises the virtues. A virtue is a character trait a human being needs to flourish or live well.

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