<Emph Rend= Bold >CHAPTER XIV.</Emph>

<emph rend="bold">CHAPTER XIV.</emph>

<emph rend="bold">BREAD.</emph>

BREAD may be called, without error of statement, "the staff of life," inasmuch as it is used by all civilized peoples as their staple article of food, and furnishes proteid, carbohydrate, mineral matter, and a small quantity of fat. The deficiency in fat is usually supplied by spreading bread with butter.

Breads may be considered under two great classes:--

1. Fermented,

{indented}Made light by the use of a ferment, yeast usually being employed.

2. Unfermented,

{indented}Made light by the use of soda and cream of tartar, or baking powder.

In either case the lightness is due to the development of carbon dioxid (CO2). In the first instance this change is brought about during the process of fermentation. There are various kinds of fermentation, each of which is caused by special organisms. The organisms found in the yeast plant are the ones which apply to bread making. They have the power of changing starch to sugar, and sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxid. In the second case the change is brought about by the chemical reaction. By the action of moisture and heat, the gas in the bicarbonate of soda is liberated by the acid in the cream of tartar.

The necessary ingredients for a loaf of bread are flour, water, and yeast. To these may be added shortening, salt, sugar, and milk.

Bread made with water, flour, salt, and yeast keeps fresh longer, and is less liable to sour, than when milk is used for the wetting, but is of a tougher consistency, and

not as palatable. When shortening is added with either milk or water the bread is tenderer and better tasting. The addition of a little sugar--one tablespoon to six cups of flour--hastens the rising, and has no appreciable effect on the taste. The United States Department of Agriculture, Farmer's Bulletin 112, recommends the use of milk for bread making, as it adds to the proteid as well as the fuel value of the loaf.

Hard spring wheat flour is the best adapted to bread making, as it contains gluten in the right proportion to produce the spongy loaf. Gluten is the chief proteid of wheat. Its elastic, tenacious qualities, when mixed with water and acted upon by yeast, allow the gas formed to expand without danger of escape, making light the entire mass. The strength of a flour is determined largely by

the quantity of gluten it contains. The larger the quantity of gluten, the more water it will take up, and the greater the yield in number of loaves to the barrel.

Entire wheat, Graham, and white flour are all products of wheat. Entire wheat flour may be bought either fine or coarse. Graham flour is a dark flour product containing a perceptible quantity of the coarse inner bran coats of the wheat.

Rye flour ranks next to wheat flour for bread making purposes. It is of darker color, and its gluten is less elastic and tenacious. In making rye bread it is desirable to use white flour in combination with rye flour.

Oats and barley are seldom used in the making of bread. Their gluten is even less tenacious than that of rye. From corn meal it is impossible to make a raised loaf, for none of its proteid is in the form of gluten.

<emph rend="bold">Composition and Food Value of Standard Flours.</emph>

{table typed by its rows}

Kind.

Proteid.

Carboyhdrate.

Fat.

Mineral matter.

Calorie per pound.

White......

11.4%

75.1%

1.0%

0.5%

1635

Entire wheat.

13.8%

71.9%

1.9%

1.0%

1650

Graham flour.

13.3%

71.4%

2.2%

1.8%

1645

Rye flour....

6.8%

78.7%

0.9%

0.7%

1620

From this table it may be seen that there is no appreciable difference between the fuel value of bread, whether made from white or entire wheat flour. Bread made from Graham flour contains so much of the bran coats of the wheat that it is forced through the digestive tract so quickly that absorption is less complete, and the system gets less nutritive value from it than from other breads. Nevertheless, there are times when its use is to be recommended. If the intestines do their work slowly and incompletely, it acts as a stimulus to peristalsis.

<emph rend="bold">Yeast.</emph>

Yeast is a minute single-celled plant of fungus growth which reproduces itself in two ways:--

1. By sending out buds which break off as new plants.

2. By forming spores which develop into new plants, under favorable conditions.

Conditions most favorable for its growth:--

1. Warmth (78° F.)

2. Moisture.

3. Sugar or starch converted into sugar.

4. Nitrogenous soil.

5. Oxygen.

The most favorable temperature for the growth of the yeast plant is 78° F. Yeast is killed at a moist heat of 140° F. or a dry heat of 212° F. Yeast will survive freezing temperature (32°F.), and if again placed under favorable conditions will grow and thrive.

While the yeast plant is active when well furnished with air, it is capable of obtaining a supply of oxygen by splitting up sugar and starch.

In bread making the side products of fermentation are almost as important as the carbon dioxid and alcohol, as they give flavor and aroma to the products.

Wild yeast plants are found floating in the air, and it is by the cultivation of these that pure yeast cultures are

obtained. Standard brands of compressed yeast cakes are most satisfactory for bread making and are almost universally used. They contain a larger number of yeast plants to a given bulk than any other form of yeast, either liquid or dry.

Yeast cakes should be used only when fresh, and while they keep fresh but a few days, there is seldon difficulty in obtaining a satisfactory supply. A fresh yeast cake is known by its light color, and absence from dark streaks.

<emph rend="bold">Bread Making.</emph>

Fermented bread is made by mixing to a dough flour, with a liquid (water, milk, or milk and water), salt, and a ferment (yeast), sugar being usually added to hasten fermentation. The dough is then kneaded until smooth, elastic to the touch, and bubbles may be seen on the surface, to thoroughly mix the ingredients, to distribute uniformly the yeast, and to incorporate air; then covered for rising, and allowed to remain at a temperature of 69° to 78° F. until it doubles its bulk. During this time the yeast has produced a ferment which changes some of the starch to sugar, and the sugar in turn to alcohol and carbon dioxid. Still another ferment appears which peptonizes some of the gluten of the wheat.

It is then cut down, and again kneaded, to break bubbles and distribute evenly the gas already formed. If allowed to rise too long the result will be a sour bread. If it is not convenient to shape the dough when it has doubled its bulk, it may be cut down, thus checking fermentation for the time being, then set in a cool place to let rise again. This may be done without injury to the finished loaf; in fact many consider the second rising an improvement. Sour bread shows either lack of the knowledge of bread making or carelessness.

Where bread is mixed in the morning, when one is able to keep a watch on it during the entire rising, a uniform

temperature is best accomplished by placing bowl containing dough in a larger vessel of water kept at a temperature of 100° F.

After the yeast has done its work (which is accomplished when a certain amount of alcohol is produced) bacterial action begins, which gives rise to acetic, lactic, and butyric fermentation, which are the causes of sour bread. These micro-organisms may enter the mixture through the flour, water, or air, and a few are present in the yeast cake. Salt retards the action of bacteria.

Quick rising, or five-hour bread, requires a larger quantity of yeast cake than bread which is allowed to rise over night, but is generally more satisfactory. There are, however, some who prefer the flavor obtained by the long rising. In the following recipes five-hour bread only will be considered. These recipes may be used where bread is allowed to rise over night if one-fourth yeast cake is allowed to each pint of liquid.

A sponge is a mixture of liquid, flour, and yeast cake of such a consistency to pour or drop from a spoon. Many in making bread prefer first making a sponge, allowing that to rise until light, and then adding flour to knead.

<emph rend="bold">Shaping Bread Doughs.</emph>

Bread dough, properly risen, is ready for shaping into loaves, biscuits, or rolls. Cut off dough the desired size, knead until smooth, avoiding seams underneath, place in buttered pan, cover, again let rise to double its bulk, when it is ready for baking.

Biscuits or rolls may be shaped in a great variety of ways but always see to it that they are made small. Hot fresh raised bread is not a suitable article of diet for the sick and convalescent.

Sometimes stale biscuits or rolls, reheated, may be used, and twice baked bread, in the form of pulled bread and Zwieback, is especially recommended.

<emph rend="bold">Baking of Bread.</emph>

Bread is baked

1. To kill the yeast plant (accomplished at 158° F.).

2. To render the starch soluble.

3. To drive off alcohol and carbon dioxid.

4. To form a dextrinized crust of sweet, pleasant flavor.

It is a common error to bake loaf bread insufficiently. While it requires a hot oven, it should continue to rise for about fifteen minutes after going into the oven, then the rising should cease and the loaf begin to brown.

A loaf of bread of medium size requires from one to one and one-fourth hours for baking.

<emph rend="bold">Digestibility.</emph>

Freshly baked bread cannot be sufficiently masticated to render it easy of digestion. Stale bread, from thirty-six to forty-eight hours old, if thoroughly masticated, is well digested and absorbed.

Butter spread on bread not only increases its nutritive value, but tends to assist its digestibility.

<emph rend="bold">Water Bread.</emph>

2 cups boiling water.

1 1/2 tablespoons butter.

1 tablespoon sugar.

1 1/4 teaspoons salt.

1 yeast cake (dissolved in 1/4 cup lukewarm water).

6 cups sifted flour.

Put butter, sugar, and salt in bowl without a lip. Pour on boiling water, and when lukewarm add dissolved yeast cake and five cups flour, then stir until thoroughly mixed, using a knife or spoon. Add remaining flour,mix and turn on a floured cloth; knead, return to bowl, and cover with a cloth and board or tin cover. Let rise until mixture has doubled its bulk, cut down, toss on a floured cloth, knead, shape, let rise again, and bake. Remove from pan, place side down on wire rack, that the air may have an opportunity to circulate around it. If a

soft crust is desired, cover with a towel. Avoid putting in bread box until thoroughly cooled, as it keeps better, and is less liable to become mouldy. Never wrap bread in a cloth, as the cloth will absorb moisture and transmit an unpleasant taste to the bread.

<emph rend="bold">Pulled Bread.</emph>

Make Water Bread in long loaves, so that the grain of the bread extends the entire length of the loaf. Remove crusts while bread is warm, and pull bread apart in stick-shape pieces of uniform size. Put sticks in pan and bake in a slow oven until thoroughly dried and delicately browned.

<emph rend="bold">Milk and Water Bread.</emph>

1 cup scalded milk.

1 cup boiling water.

1 1/2 tablespoons butter.

1 tablespoon sugar.

1 1/4 teaspoons salt.

1 yeast cake dissolved in 1/4 cup lukewarm water.

6 cups flour.

Make and bake same as Water Bread.

<emph rend="bold">Entire Wheat Bread I.</emph>

1 cup scalded milk.

1 cup boiling water.

1 1/2 tablespoons butter.

1 1/4 teaspoons salt.

1 yeast cake dissolved in 1/4 cup lukewarm water.

1 cup white flour.

Entire Wheat flour (enough to knead).

3 tablespoons molasses.

Make same as Water Bread, adding molasses after the first rising.

<emph rend="bold">Entire Wheat Bread II.</emph>

2 cups scalded milk.

1 teaspoon salt.

1 yeast cake dissolved in 1/4 cup lukewarm water.

3 1/4 cups Entire Wheat flour (coarse).

2 3/4 cups white flour.

1/4 cup sugar or 1/3 cup molasses.

Add sugar and salt to milk; when lukewarm add dissolved yeast cake and flour. Toss on a floured cloth.

Knead slightly and handle quickly to prevent dough from sticking to cloth and hands. Put in bowl, cover, and let rise. Shape, let rise again, and bake. If molasses is used, add after the first rising.

<emph rend="bold">Graham Bread.</emph>

2 1/2 cups liquid (water or milk and water).

1/3 cup molasses.

1 1/2 teaspoons salt.

1 yeast cake dissolved in 1/4 cup lukewarm water.

3 cups Graham flour.

3 cups flour.

Add molasses and salt to liquid, when lukewarm add dissolved yeast cake and flour. Beat thoroughly, cover, and let rise. Again beat, and turn into buttered bread pans, having pans one-half full. Let rise, and bake. Graham bread should not quite double its bulk during the last rising. A satisfactory way of making this bread is to first make a sponge of the white flour and when well risen add molasses and Graham flour.

<emph rend="bold">Rye Bread.</emph>

1 cup scalded milk.

1 cup boiling water.

1 1/2 tablespoons butter.

1/3 cup brown sugar.

1 1/2 teaspoons salt.

1 yeast cake dissolved in 1/4 cup lukewarm water.

3 cups flour.

Rye meal (enough to knead).

Add milk and water to shortening, sugar, and salt. When lukewarm add dissolved yeast cake and flour. Beat thoroughly, cover, and let rise, add rye meal until dough is stiff enough to knead. Toss on floured cloth, knead, let rise, shape in loaves, let rise again, and bake.

<emph rend="bold">Oat Bread.</emph>

2 cups boiling water.

1 cup rolled oats.

1 tablespoon butter.

1/3 cup molasses.

1/2 tablespoon salt.

1 yeast cake dissolved in 1/2 cup lukewarm water.

4 1/2 cups flour.

Add boiling water to oats and butter and let stand one hour. Then add remaining ingredients, beat thoroughly,

and let rise, turn into buttered bread pans, let rise again, and bake in a hot oven.

<emph rend="bold">Health Food Bread.</emph>

1 cup warm wheat mush.

1/4 cup brown sugar.

1/2 teaspoon salt.

1 tablespoon butter.

1 yeast cake dissolved in

1/4 cup lukewarm water.

Flour.

Mix ingredients in the order given, using enough flour to knead. Knead, cover, let rise, shape, put into buttered pan, cover, let rise again, and bake in a hot oven.

<emph rend="bold">Bread Sticks.</emph>

1 cup scalded milk.

1/4 cup butter.

1 1/2 tablespoons sugar.

1/2 teaspoon salt.

1 yeast cake dissolved in

1/4 cup lukewarm water.

White 1 egg.

3 3/4 cups flour.

Add butter, sugar, and salt to milk; when lukewarm add dissolved yeast cake, white of egg, well beaten, and flour. Knead, cover, let rise, shape, pile on buttered tin sheet, cover, let rise again, and bake. The oven should be hot enough to stop the rising at once, then the heat should be reduced, that sticks may be crisp and dry.

To shape bread sticks, form small biscuits, then roll biscuits, using both hands (on part of board where there is no flour) until of desired length, uniform thickness, and round at ends.

<emph rend="bold">Bran Muffins.</emph>

1/2 cup flour.

1/2 teaspoon soda.

1/4 teaspoon salt.

1 cup bran.

1/2 cup milk.

2 1/2 tablespoons molasses.

1 egg.

Mix and sift flour, soda, and salt. Add bran, molasses, and milk; then egg well beaten. Bake in hot buttered gem pans.

{Illustration: An illustration of a plate of pan-broiled French chops with potato balls.}

PAN-BROILED FRENCH CHOPS WITH POTATO BALLS

See p. 143

{illustration of a plate of jellied sweetbread.}

JELLIED SWEETBREAD

See p. 144

{illustration of a plate of creamed chicken.}

CREAMED CHICKEN IN POTATO BORDER

See p. 146

{illustration of a pastry bag and tubes}

PASTRY BAG AND TUBES

<emph rend="bold">Invalid Muffins.</emph>

1 cup bread flour.

1 teaspoon baking powder.

1/2 teaspoon salt.

1/2 cup milk.

Whites 2 eggs.

2 tablespoons melted butter.

Mix and sift dry ingredients, add milk gradually, eggs well beaten, and melted butter. Bake in moderate oven in buttered gem pans. Let stand in oven, after baking, with door ajar, that crust may be dry and crisp. To be eaten hot or cold.

<emph rend="bold">White Corn Meal Cake.</emph>

1/4 cup white corn meal.

1/2 cup scalded milk.

1/2 teaspoon salt.

Add salt to corn meal, and pour on, gradually, milk. Turn into a buttered shallow pan to the depth of one-fourth inch. Bake in a moderate oven until crisp. Split, and spread with butter.

<emph rend="bold">Rusks (Zwieback).</emph>

1/2 cup milk.

2 yeast cakes.

1/2 teaspoon salt.

1/4 cup sugar.

1/4 cup melted butter.

3 eggs.

Flour.

Scald milk, and when lukewarm, add yeast cakes, and as soon as yeast cakes are dissolved add salt and one cup flour. Cover, and let rise until light; then add sugar, butter, eggs unbeaten, and flour enough to handle. Knead, shape, and place close together in two parallel rows two inches apart on a buttered sheet. Let rise again, and bake in a hot oven twenty-five minutes. When cold cut diagonally in one-half inch slices, and brown in a slow oven.

&lt;Emph Rend= Bold &gt;CHAPTER XIV.&lt;/Emph&gt;

<Emph Rend= Bold >CHAPTER XIV.</Emph>